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THE 



PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, 



AND 



MACHINIST'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION: 



FORMING A COMPLETE COUESE OP 



ttjaratal, (IngiMtriitg, anb ^ttjitotaal grafting. 



l TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF 

M. ARMENGAUD, THE ELDER, 

" 

PROFESSOR OF DESIGN IN THE CONSERVATOIRE OF ARTS AND INDUSTRY, PARIS, 

AND 

MM. ARMENGAUD, THE YOUNGER, AND AMOUROUX, 

CIVIL ENGINEERS. 

REWRITTEN AND ARRANGED, WITH ADDITIONAL MATTER AND PLATES, SELECTIONS FROM AND EXAMPLES OF 
THE MOST USEFUL AND GENERALLY EMPLOYEE MECHANISM OF THE DAY. 

BY 

WILLIAM JOHNSON, Assoc. Inst., C.E , 

EDITOR OF "THE PRACTICAL MECHANIC'S JOURNAL." 



PHILADELPHIA: 
TTENHY CAREY BAIRD, 

40G WALNUT STREET. 
18G3. 






Inexch, 
3,«tQ, Pub. Lib. 

* f 1S08 



PHILADELPHIA: 
COLLINS, PRINTER, 705 JATNE STREET. 



£72- 






PREFACE. 



Industrial Design is destined to become a universal language ; for in our material age of rapid transition 
from abstract, to applied, Science — in the midst of our extraordinary tendency towards the perfection of the 
means of conversion, or manufacturing production — it must soon pass current in every land. It is, indeed, 
the medium between thought and Execution ; by it alone can the genius of Conception convey its meaning to 
the skill which executes — or suggestive ideas become living, practical realities. It is emphatically the 
exponent of the projected works of the Practical Engineer, the Manufacturer, and the Builder ; and by its 
aid only, is the Inventor enabled to express his views before he attempts to realise them. 

Boyle has remarked, in his early times, that the excellence of manufactures, and the facility of labour, 
would be much promoted, if the various expedients and contrivances which lie concealed in private hands, 
were, by reciprocal communications, made generally known ; for there are few operations that are not 
performed by one or other with some peculiar advantages, which, though singly of little importance, would, 
by conjunction and concurrence, open new inlets to knowledge,; and give new powers to diligence ; and 
Herschel, in our own days, has told us that, next to the establishment of scientific institutions, nothing has 
exercised so powerful an influence on the progress of modern science, as the publication of scientific periodicals, 
in directing the course of general observation, and holding conspicuously forward models for emulative 
imitation. Yet, without the aid of Drawing, how can this desired reciprocity of information be attained ; or 
how would our scientific literature fulfil its purpose, if denied the benefit of the graphic labours of the 
Draughtsman? Our verbal interchanges would, in truth, be vague and barren details, and our printed 
knowledge, misty and unconvincing. 

Independently of its utility as a precise art, Drawing really interests the student, whilst it instructs him. 
It instils sound and accurate ideas into his mind, and develops his intellectual powers in compelling him to 
observe — as if the objects he delineates were really before his eyes. Besides, he always does that the best, 
which he best understands ; and in this respect, the art of Drawing operates as a powerful stimulant to 
progress, in continually yielding new and varied results. 

A chance sketch — a rude combination of carelessly considered pencillings — the jotted memoranda of a 
contemplative brain, prying into the corners of contrivance — often form the nucleus of a splendid invention. 
An idea thus preserved at the moment of its birth, may become of incalculable value, when rescued from I lie 
desultory train of fancy, and treated as the sober offspring of reason. In nice gradations, it receives the 
refining touches of leisure — becoming, first, a finished sketch, — then a drawing by the practised hand — so (hat 
many minds may find easy access to it, for their joint counsellings to improvement — until it finally emerges 
from the workshop, as a practical triumph of mechanical invention— an illustrious example of a happy 



Iv PREFACE. 



combination opportunely noticed. Yet many ingenious men are barely able even to start this train of 
production, purely from inability to adequately delineate their early conceptions, or furnish that transcript of 
their minds which might make their thoughts immortal. If the present Treatise succeeds only in mitigating 
this evil, it will not entirely fail in its object ; for it will at least add a few steps to the ladder of Intelligence, 
and form a few more approaches to the goal of Perfection — 

"Thou hast not lost an hour whereof there is a record; 
A written thought at midnight will redeem the livelong day." 

The study of Industrial Design is really as indispensably necessary as the ordinary rudiments of learning. 
It ought to form an essential feature in the education of young persons for whatever profession or employment 
they may intend to select, as the great business of their lives ; for without a knowledge of Drawing, no 
scientific work, whether relating to Mechanics, Agriculture, or- Manufactures, can be advantageously studied. 
This is now beginning to receive acknowledgment, and the routines of study in all varieties of educational 
establishments are being benefited by the introduction of the art. 

The special mission of the Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design may almost be gathered from 
its title-page. It is intended to furnish gradually developed lessons in Geometrical Drawing, applied directly 
to the various branches of the Industrial Arts : comprehending Linear Design proper ; Isometrical Perspective, 
or the study of Projections ; the Drawing of Toothed Wheels and Eccentrics ; with Shadowing and Colour- 
ing ; Oblique Projections ; and the study of parallel and exact Perspective ; each division being accompanied 
by special applications to the extensive ranges of Mechanics, Architecture, Foundry- Works, Carpentry, 
Joinery, Metal Manufactures generally, Hydraulics, the construction of Steam Engines, and Mill-Work. In 
its compilation, the feeble attraction generally offered to students in elementary form has been carefully 
considered ; and after every geometrical problem, a practical example of its application has been added, to 
facilitate its comprehension and increase its value. 

The work is comprised within nine divisions, appropriated to the different branches of Industrial Design. 
The first, which concerns Linear Drawing only, treats particularly of straight lines — of circles — and their 
application to the delineation of Mouldings, Ceilings, Floors, Balconies, Cuspids, Rosettes, and other forms, 
to accustom the student to the proper use of the Square, Angle, and Compasses. In addition to this, it affords 
examples of different methods of constructing plain curves, such as are of frequent occurrence in the arts, and 
in mechanical combinations — as the ellipse, the oval, the parabola, and the volute ; and certain figures, 
accurately shaded, to represent reliefs, exemplifying cases where these curves are employed. 

The second division illustrates the geometrical representation of objects, or the study of projections. 
This forms the basis of all descriptive geometry, practically considered. It shows that a single figure is 
insufficient for the determination of all the outlines and dimensions of a given subject ; but that two projections, 
and one or more sections, are always necessary for the due interpretation of internal forms. 

The third 'division points out the conventional colours and tints for the expression of the sectional details 
of objects, according to their nature ; furnishing, at the same time, simple and easy examples, which may at 
once interest the pupil, and familiarise him with the use of the pencil. 

In the fourth division are given drawings of various essentially valuable curves, as Helices, and different 
kinds of Spirals and Serpentines, with the intersection of surfaces and their development, and workshop 
applications to Pipes, Coppers, Boilers, and Cocks. This study is obviously of importance in many professions, 
and clearly so to Ironplate-workers, as Shipbuilders and Boiler-makers, Tinmen and Coppersmiths. 



PREFACE. 



The fifth division is devoted to special classes of curves relating to the teeth of Spur "Wheels Screws 
and Racks, and the details of the construction of their patterns. The latter branch is of peculiar importance 
here, inasmuch as it has not been fully treated of in any existing work, whilst it is of the highest value to the 
pattern maker, who ought to be acquainted with the most workmanlike plan of cutting his wood, and 
effecting the necessary junctions, as well as the general course to take in executing his pattern, for facilitating 
the moulding process. 

The sixth division is, in effect, a continuation of the fifth. It comprises the theory and practice of 
drawing Bevil. Conical, or Angular Wheels, with details of the construction of the wood patterns, and 
notices of peculiar forms of some gearing, as well as the eccentrics employed in mechanical construction. 

The seventh division comprises the studies of the shading and shadows of the principal solids — Prisms, 
Pyramids, Cylinders, and Spheres, together with their applications to mechanical and architectural details, 
as screws, spur and bevil wheels, coppers and furnaces, columns and entablatures. These studies naturally 
lead to that of colours — single, as those of China Ink or Sepia, or varied ; also of graduated shades produced 
by successive flat tints, according to one method, or by the softening manipulation of the brush, according 
to another. 

The pupil* may now undertake designs of greater complexity, leading him in the eighth division to various 
figures representing combined or general elevations, as well as sections and details of various complete 
machines, to which are added some geometrical drawings, explanatory of the action of the moving parts 
of machinery. 

The ninth completes the study of Industrial Design, with oblique projections and parallels, and exact 
perspective. In the study of exact perspective, special applications of its rules are made to architecture and 
machinery by the aid of a perspective elevation of a corn mill supported on columns, and fitted up with all 
the necessary gearing. A series of Plates, marked A, b, &c, are also interspersed throughout the work, as 
examples of finished drawings of machinery. The Letterpress relating to these Plates, together with an 
illustrated chapter on Drawing Instruments, will form an appropriate Appendix to the Volume. The general 
explanatory text embraces not only a description of the objects and their movements, but also tables and 
practical rules, more particularly those relating to the dimensions of the principal details of machinery, as 
facilitating actual construction. 

Such is the scope, and such are the objects, of the Practical Draughtsman's Book of Industrial Design. 

Such is the course now submitted to the consideration of all who are in the slightest degree connected 
with the Constructive Arts. It aims at the dissemination of those fundamental teachings which are so 
essentially necessary at every stage in the application of the forces lent to us by Nature for the conversion 
of her materials. For :< man can only act upon Nature, and appropriate her forces to his use, by comprehending 
her laws, and knowing those forces in relative value and measure." All art is the true application of 
knowledge to a practical end. We have outlived the times of random construction, and the mere heaping 
together of natural substances. We must now design carefully and delineate accurately before we proceed 
to execute — and the quick pencil of the ready draughtsman is a proud possession for our purpose. Let the 
youthful student think on this ; and whether in the workshop of the Engineer, (ho studio o\' the Architect, 
or the factory of the Manufacturer, let him remember that, to spare the blighting of his fondest hopes, and 
the marring of his fairest prospects — to achieve, indeed, his higher aspirations, and verify his loftier thoughts, 
which point to eminence — he must give his days and nights, his business and his leisure, to the stud) of 



3 n b u s t v i a I ffl c & i a, n . 



ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. 



In order to simplify the language or expression of arithmetical and geometrical operations, the following conventional 
signs are used : — 

The sign + signifies plus or more, and is placed between two or more terms to indicate addition. 

Example : 4 + 3, is 4 plus 3, that is, 4 added to 3, or 7. 

The sign — signifies minus or less, and indicates subtraction. 

Ex. : 4 — 3, is 4 minus 3, that is, 3 taken from 4, or 1. 

The sign X signifies multiplied by, and, placed between two terms, indicates multiplication. 

Ex. : 5 X 3, is 5 multiplied by 3, or 15. 

When quantities are expressed by letters, the sign may be suppressed. Thus we write, indifferently — 

a X b, or ab. 
The sign : or (as it is more commonly used) —, signifies divided by, and, placed between two quantities, indicates division. 



Ex. 



12 
12 : 4, or 12 -4- 4, or — -, is 12 divided by 4. 



The sign = signifies equals or equal to, and is placed between two expressions to indicate their equality. 

Ex. : 6 + 2 = 8, meaning, that 6 plus 2 is equal to 8. 

The union of these signs, : : : : indicates geometrical proportion. 

Ex. : 2 : 3 :: 4 : 6, meaning, that 2 is to 3 as 4 is to 6. 

The sign -\/ indicates the extraction of a root ; as, 

V 9 = 3, meaning, that the square root of 9 is equal to 3. 
The interposition of a numeral between the opening of this sign, y', indicates the degree of the root. Thus — 

V^27 = 3, expresses that the cube root of 27 is equal to 3. 
The signs / and 7 indicate respectively, smaller than and greater than. 

Ex. : 3 /_ 4, = 3 smaller than 4 , and, reciprocally, 4 7 3, = 4 greater than 3. 

Fig. signifies figure ; and pi., plate. 



FRENCH AND ENGLISH LINEAR MEASURES COMPARED. 



10 Millimetres 
10 Centimetres 

10 Decimetres 

10 Metres 

10 Decametres 

10 Hectometres 
10 Kilometre* 



1 Millimetre 

= 1 Centimetre 

= 1 Decimetre 

= 1 Metre 

= 1 Decametre 

= 1 Hectometre 

= 1 Kilometre 

— 1 Myriametre 



H 



English 

•0394 Inches. 
•3937 " 
•9371 " 
•2809 Feet. 
•0936 Yards. 
•9SS4 Poles or Rods. 
•8844 

•7109 Furlongs. 
•2139 Miles. 
1386 " 



English. 



French. 



1 Inch. 



12 Inches 
3 Feet 
5i Yards 
40 Poles 
8 Furlongs 
1760 Yards 



_ i 25-400 Millimetres. 
( 2-540 Centimetres. 



= 1 Foot — 

= 1 Yard = 

= 1 Pole or Rod = 

= 1 Furlong " > 

= 1 Mile 



3 048 Decimetres. 
9-144 

5-029 Metres. 
J 2 Decametres. 



= I'blO Hectometre* 



CONTENTS. 



Preface, • 

Abbreviations and -Conventional signs, 



PAOF. 

iii 
vi 



CHAPTER I. 

LINEAR DRAWING, 7 

Definitions and Problems : Plate I. 

Lines and surfaces, - - - - - ib. 

Applications. 

Designs for inlaid pavements, ceilings, and balconies : 

Plate II., 11 

Sweeps, sections, and mouldings : Plate III., - 13 

Elementary Gothic forms and rosettes : Plate IV., 14 

Ovals, Ellipses, Parabolas, and Volutes : Plate V., 15 

Rules and Practical Data. 

Lines and surfaces, - - - - - 19 



CHAPTER II. 



THE STUDY OF PROJECTIONS, 



- 22 



Elementary Principles : Plate VI. 

Projections of a point, - - - ib. 

Projections of a straight line, - - - 23 

Projections of a plane surface, - - - ib. 

Of Prisms and Other Solids : Plate VIT., - - 24 

Projections of a cube : Fig. /^, - - - ib. 

Projections of a right square-based prism, or rectan- 
gular parallelopiped : Fig. [§, - - 25 

Projections of a quadrangular pyramid ; Fig. ©, - ib. 

Projections of a right prism, partially hollowed, as 

Fig. ®, - - - - - - ib. 

Projections of a right cylinder : Fig. [1, - - ib. 

Projections of a right cone : Fig. \^, ib. 

Projections of a sphere : Fig. (§, - - 26 

Of shadow lines, - - - - - ib. 

Projections of grooved or fluted cylinders and 

ratchet-wheels : Plate VIIT., - - - 27 

The elements of architecture : Plate IX., - - 28 

Outline of the Tuscan order, - - - 29 

Rules and Practical Data. 

The measurement of solids, - - - - 30 



CHAPTER in. 

ON COLORING SECTIONS, WITH APPLICA- 
TIONS. » 

Conventional colors, - 

Composition or mixture of colors : Plate X., 

Continuation of the Study of Projections. 

Use of sections — details of machinery : Plate XL, 

Simple applications — spindles, shafts, couplings, 
wooden patterns : Plate XII. , - 

Method of constructing a wooden model or pattern 
of a coupling, .... 

Elementary applications — rails and chairs for rail- 
ways : Plate XIII., - 

Rules and Practical Data. 
Strength of materials, - 

Resistance to compression or crushing force, 
Tensional resistance, .... 

Resistance to flexure, - 

Resistance to torsion, .... 

Friction of surfaces in contact, - - 



35 

ib. 

36 
38 

40 
41 

42 
ib. 
43 
44 
46 
49 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE INTERSECTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF 

SURFACES, WITH APPLICATIONS, - - 49 

The Intersections of Cylinders and Cones : Plate 
XIV. 
Pipes and boilers, - - - - - 50 

Intersection of a cone with a sphere, - - ib. 

Developments, - - - - - - ib. 

Development of the cylinder, - - - 51 

Development of the cone, - - - ■ ib. 

The Delineation and Development of H flicks. 
Screws, and Serpentines: Plate XV. 

Helices, - - - - - - 52 

Development of the helix, - - - - 53 

Screws, - - - - - - ib. 

Internal screws, - - - - - 54 

Serpentines, - - - - - - ib. 

Application of the helix — the construction of n, 

staircase : Plat* XVI., - - - - 55 



IV 



CONTENTS. 



The intersection of surfaces — applications to stop- 
cocks : Plate XVII., - 
Eules and Practical Data. 

Steam, ...... 

Unity of heat, ..... 

Heating surface, ..... 

Calculation of the dimensions of boilers, 

Dimensions of firegrate, - 

Chimneys, ------ 

Safety-valves, ..... 



CHAPTER V. 

THE STUDY AND CONSTRUCTION OF TOOTHED 
GEAR, 

Involute, cycloid, and epicycloid : Plates XVIII. 

and XIX. 
Involute : Fig. 1, Plate XVIIL, - 
Cycloid : Fig. 2, Plate XVIIL, - 
External epicycloid, described by a circle rolling 

about a fixed circle inside it : Fig. 3, Plate XIX., 
Internal epicycloid : Fig. 2, Plate XIX'., - 
Delineation of a rack and pinion in gear : Fig. 4, 

Plate XVIIL, .... 
Gearing of a worm with a worm-wheel : Figs. 5 and 

6, Plate XVIIL, 

Cylindrical or Spur Gearing : Plate XIX. 

External delineation of two spur-wheels in gear : 

Fig. 4, 

Delineation of a couple of wheels gearing internally : 

Fig. 5, 

Practical delineation of a couple of spur-wheels : 

Plate XX., ..... 

The Delineation and Construction of Wooden Pat- 
terns for Toothed Wheels : Plate XXL, 
Spur-wheel patterns, .... 

Pattern of the pinion, .... 

Pattern of the wooden-toothed spur-wheel, - 
Core moulds, - - - . . 

Rules and Practical Data. 
Toothed gearing, - 

Angular and circumferential velocity of wheels, - 
Dimensions of gearing, .... 

Thickness of the teeth, .... 

Pitch of the teeth, ...... 

Dimensions of the web, .... 

Number and dimensions of the arms, 
Wooden patterns, - 



CHAPTER VI. 

CONTINUATION OF THE STUDY OF TOOTHED 
GEAR. 
Conical or bevil gearing, - 
Design for a pair of bevil-wheels in gear : Plate 

XXIL, 

Construction of wooden patterns for a pair of bevil- 
wheels : Plate XXIIL, - . . . 
Involute and Helical Teeth : Plate XXIV. 

Delineation of a couple of spur-wheels, with involute 
teeth : Figs. 1 and 2, - . . . 

Helical gearing : Figs, 4 and 5, 
Contrivances for Obtaining Differential Movements. 



56 

58 
59 
60 
ib. 
61 
ib. 
62 



63 



ib. 
64 

65 

ib. 

■ ib. 
67 



ib. 



68 



69. 



70 

ib. 
71 
ib. 

72 
74 
75 
ib. 
76 
77 
ib. 
78 



ib. 

ib. 
80 



82 
83 



The delineation of eccentrics and cams: Plate 
XXV., j> 

Circular eccentric, - - - - 

Heart-shaped cam : Fig. 1, - 

Cam for producing a uniform and intermittent 
movement : Figs. 2 and 3, ... 

Triangular cam : Figs. 4 and 5, - 
Involute cam : Figs. 6 and 7, - - - 

Cam to produce intermittent and dissimilar move- 
ments : Figs. 8 and 9, - 
Rules and Practical Data. 

Mechanical work of effect, .... 

The simple machines, .... 

Centre of gravity, - 

On estimating the power of prime movers, - 

Calculation for the brake, .... 

The fall of bodies, - 

Momentum, - - - - 

Central forces, ..... 



85 
ib. 
ib.' 

ib. 
86 
ib. 

87 

88 
91 
93 
ib. 
ib. 
95 
ib. 
ib. 



96 



ib. 
97 
98 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
99 
ib. 

100 

ib. 

ib. 

101 

102 



CHAPTER Vn. 

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF SHADO S, - 
Shadows of Prisms, Pyramids, and Cylinders : Plate 
XXVI. 
Prism, ...... 

Pyramid, ...... 

Truncated pyramid, ..... 

Cylinder, ...... 

Shadow cast by one cylinder on another, - 
Shadow cast by a cylinder on a prism, 
Shadow cast by one prism on another, 
Shadow cast by a prism on a cylinder, 

Principles of Shading : Plate XXVIL, 

Illumined surfaces, - - - - - 

Surfaces in the shade, .... 

Flat-tinted shading, ..... 
Shading by softened washes, ... 

Continuation of the Study of Shadows : Plate 
XXVIII. 

Shadow cast upon the interior of a cylinder, - 103 

Shadow cast by one cylinder upon another, - ib. 

Shadows of cones, - - - - - ib. 

Shadow of an inverted cone, - - -104 

Shadow cast upon the interior of a hollow cone, - 105 
Applications, - - - - - ib. 

Tuscan Order : Plate XXIX. 

Shadow of the torus, - - - - ib. 

Shadow cast by a straight line upon a torus, or 

quarter round, ..... 107 
Shadows of surfaces of revolution. ... ib. 

Rules and Practical Data. 

Pumps, - - - - - - 108 

Hydrostatic principles, .... «&. 

Forcing pumps, - - - - - ib. 

Lifting and forcing pumps, .... 109 

The hydrostatic press, - - - - ib. 

Hydrostatical calculations and data — discharge of 

water through different orifices, - - - ib. 

Gauging of a water-course of uniform section and fall, 110 
Velocity of the bottom of water-courses, - - ib. 

Calculation of the discharge of water through rect- 
angular orifices of narrow edges, ... ill 



CONTENTS. 



Calculation of the discharge of water through over- 
shot outlets, ..... 114 
To determine the width of an overshot outlet, - ib. 
To determine the depth of the outlet, - - ib. 
Outlet with a spout or duct, - - - -116 



CHAPTER VIII. 

APPLICATION OP SHADOWS TO TOOTHED 
GEAK : Plate XXX. 

Spur-wheels : Pigs. 1 and 2, - - - - ib. 

Bevil-wheels : Figs. 3 and 4, - - - 117 

Application of Shadows to Screws : Plate XXXI., 118 
Cylindrical square-threaded screw : Figs. 1, 2, 2", 

and 3, - - - - - ib. 

Screw with several rectangular threads -.Figs. 4 and 5. ib. 
Triangular-threaded screw : Figs. 6, 6", 7, and 8, - ib. 
Shadows upon a round-threaded screw : Figs. 9 and 10, 119 
Application of Shadows to a Boiler and its Furnace : 
Plate XXXII. 
Shadow of the sphere : Fig. 1, ib. 

Shadow cast upon a hollow sphere : Fig. 2, - 120 

Applications, - - - - - ib. 

Shading in Black — Shading in Colours : Plate 
XXXIII., - - - - - - 122 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE CUTTING AND SHAPING OF MASONRY : 

Plate XXXIV., 123 

The Marseilles arch, or arrih-e-voussure : Figs. 1 
and 2, - - - - - ib. 

Rules and Practical Data. 

Hydraulic motors, .... - 126 

Undershot water-wheels, with plane floats and a 
circular channel, - - - - - ib, 

Width, - - - . - - ib. 

Diameter, ...... 127 

Velocity, - - - T r - ib. 

Number and capacity of the buckets, - - ib. 

Useful effect of the water-wheel, ... ib. 
Overshot water-wheels, - r .- - 128 

Water-wheels, with radial floats, ... 129 
Water-wheels with curved buckets, - - 130 

Turbines, -„---- ib. 

Remarks on Machine Tools, . 131 



CHAPTER x. 

THE STUDY OF MACHIN ERY AND SKETCHING. 

Various applications and combinations, - - 133 

The Sketching of Machinery : Plates XXXV. and 

XXXVI., - ib. 

Drilling Machine, - - - - - ib. 

Motive Machines. 

Water-wheels, ..... 135 

Construction and setting up of water-wheels, - ib. 

Delineation of water-wheels, ... 136 

Design for a water-wheel, - - - - 137 

Sketch of a water-wheel, - - - - ib. 

Overshot Watbb- Wheels : Fig. 12, - - - ib. 

Delineating, sketching, and designing overshot 
water-wheels, - - - - - 138 



Water-Pumps : Plate XXXVII. 

Geometrical delineation, - - . -138 

Action of the pump, ..... 139 

Steam Motors. 

High-pressure expansive steam-engine : Plates 
XXXVIIL, XXXIX., and'XL., - - - 141 

Action of the engine, .... 142 

Parallel motion, - - - - - ib. 

Details of Construction. 

Steam cylinder, - - - - - 143 

Piston, - - - - - . ib. 

Connecting-rod and crank, - - - - ib. 

Fly-wheel, - - - - - - ib. 

Feed-pump, - - - - - - ib. 

Ball or rotating pendulum governor, - - 144 

Movements oftheDisteibution and Expansion Valves, ib. 

Lead and lap, - . - _ . 145 

Rules and Practical Data. 

Steam-engines : low pressure condensing engine 
without expansion valve, - - - - 146 

Diameter of piston, ----- 147 

Velocities, ------ 148 

Steam-pipes and passages, - - 7 - ib. 

Air-pump and condenser, - - - - ib. 

Cold-water and feed-pumps, - 149 

High pressure expansive engines, ... ib. 
Medium pressure condensing and expansive steam- 
engine, ------ 151 

Conical pendulum, or centrifugal governor, - 153 



CHAPTER XI. 
OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS. 

Application of rules to the delineation of an oscilla 
ting cylinder : Plate XLL, 



CHAPTER XII. 

PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE. 

Principles and applications : Plate XLIL, 



- 154 



155 



CHAPTER Xin. 
TRUE PERSPECTIVE. 

Elementary principles : Plate XLIIL, - - 158 

First problem — the perspective of a hollow prism : 

Figs. 1 and 2, - - - - - ib. 

Second problem — the perspective of a cylinder: 

Figs. 3 and 4, - - - - - 159 

Third problem — the perspective of a regular solid. 

when the point of sight is situated in a plane 

passing through its axis, and perpendicular to the 

plane of the picture : Figs. 5 and 6, - - 160 

Fourth problem— the perspective of a bearing brass. 

placed with its axis vertical: Figs. 7 ami 8, - ib. 

Fifth problem — the perspective of a stopcock with 

a spherical boss : Figs. 9 and 10, - - - ib. 

Sixth problem — the perspective of an object placed 

in any position with regard to the plane of the 

picture: Figs. 11 ami 12, - - - - 161 

Applications — Hour mill driven by belts: Plates 

\l,|\ and XI. V. 

Description of the mill, ... - ib. 



VI 



CONTENTS. 



Kepresentation of the mill in perspective, - 
Notes of recent improvements in flour-mills, 
Schiele's mill, - 

Mullin's " ring millstone," ... 
Barnet^'s millstone,-- ... 

Hastie's arrangement for driving mills, 
Currie's improvements in millstones, 
ftor.ES and Practical Data. 

Work performed by various machines, 
Flour-mills, . . - - - 

Saw-mills, - 

Veneer sawing machines, - 
Circular saws, .... 



PAGE 

163 
164 
■ ib. 
165 
166 

ib. 

ib. 



168 

170 

171 

ib. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

EXAMPLES OF FINISHED DRAWINGS OF MA- 
CHINERY. 

Example Plate &, balance water- meter, - - 172 

Example Plate [§, engineer's shaping machine, - 174 
Example Plate ©, ©, g, express locomotive engine, 178 
Example Plate \?, wood planing machine, - - 180 

Example Plate (§, washing machine for piece goods, 182 
Example Plate $Q, power-loom, ... ib. 
Example Plate Q, duplex steam boiler, - - 183 

Example Plate $, direct-acting marine engines, - 184 



CHAPTER XV. 
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, - 



-185 



INDEX TO THE TABLES. 



French and English linear measures compared, - - 6 
Multipliers for regular polygons of from 3 to 12 sides, - 19 
Approximate ratios between circles and squares, - - 20 
Comparison of Continental measures with French millime- 
tres and English feet, - - - - - 21 
Surfaces and volumes of regular polyhedra, - - 30 
Proportional measurements of the various parts of the 

(modern) Doric order, - - - - - 33 
Proportional measurements of the various parts of the 

Tuscan order, - - - - - - 34 

Weights which solids, such as columns, pilasters, supports, 

will sustain without being crushed, - - - 42 
Weights which prisms and cylinders will sustain when 

submitted to a tensile strain, - - - - 44 
Diameters of the journals of water-wheel and other shafts 

for heavy work, - - - - - - 46 

Diameters for shaft journals calculated with reference to 

torsional strain, - - - - - - 48 

Ratios of friction for plane surfaces, - - - 49 

Ratios of friction for journals in bearings, - - - ib. 

Pressures, temperatures, weights, and volumes of steam, - 58 

Amount of heat developed by one kilogramme of fuel, - 59 

Thickness of plates in cylindrical boilers, - ib. 
Dimensions of boilers and thickness of plates for a pressure 

of five atmospheres, - - - - - 60 

Diameters of safety-valves, - - - - - 62 

Numbers of teeth, and diameters of spur gear, - - 73 

Pitch and thickness of spur-teeth for different pressures, - 77 



PAGE 

Dimensions of spur-wheel arms, - - - - 78 

Average amount of mechanical effect producible by men 
and animals, - - - - - - 89 

Heights corresponding to various velocities of falling bodies, 94 
Comparison of French and English measures of capacity, - 110 
Discharges of water through an orifice one metre in width, 111 
Discharge of water by overshot outlets of one metre in width, 113 
Discharge of water through pipes, - - - - 115 

Dimensions and practical results of various kinds of turbines, 131 
Velocity and pressure of machine tools or cutters, - 132 

Diameters, areas, and velocities of piston in low pressure 
double-acting steam engines, with the quantities of steam 
expended per horse power, .... 147 

Force in kilogrammetres given out with various degrees of 
expansion, by a cubic metre of steam, at various pres- 
sures, ....... 150 

Proportions of double-acting steam-engines, condensing and 
non-condensing, and with or without cut-off, the steam 
being taken at a pressure of four atmospheres in the con- 
densing, and at five atmospheres in the other engines, - 152 
Proportions of medium pressure condensing and expansive 
steam-engines, with two cylinders, on Woolf 's system — 
pressure four atmospheres, .... ib. 

Dimensions of the arms, and velocities of the balls of the 

conical pendulum, or centrifugal governor, - - 153 
Power, quantity of wheat ground, and number of pairs of 
stones, with their accessory apparatus, required in flour- 
mills, 169 



PEACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



CHAPTER I. 
LINEAR DRAWING. 

In Drawing, as applied to Mechanics and Architecture, and to the 
Industrial Arts in general, it is necessary to consider not only the 
mere representation of objects, but also the relative principles of 
action of their several parts. 

The principles and methods concerned in that division of the 
art which is termed linear drawing, and which is the foundation of 
all drawing, whether industrial or artistic, are, for the most part, 
derived from elementary geometry. This branch of drawing has 
for its object the accurate delineation of surfaces and the con- 
struction of figures, obtainable by the studied combinations of 
lines ; and, with a view to render it easier, and at the same time 
more attractive and intelligible to the student, the present work 
has been arranged to treat successively of definitions, principles, 
and problems, and of the various applications of which these are 
capable. 

Many treatises on linear drawing already exist, but all these, 
considered apart from their several objects, seem to fail in the due 
development of the subject, and do not manifest that general ad- 
vancement and increased precision in details which are called for 
at the present day. It has therefore been deemed necessary to 
begin with these rudimentary exercises, and such exemplifications 
have been selected as, with their varieties, are most frequently 
met with in practice. 

Many of the methods of construction will be necessarily such as 
are already known ; but they will be limited to those which are 
absolutely indispensable to the development of the principles 
and their applications. 



DEFINITIONS. 

OF LINES AND SURFACES. 

PLATE I. 

In Geomotry, space is described in the terms of its ihroo dimen- 
sions — length, Dreadth or thickness, and height or depth. 

The combination of two of those dimensions represents surface. 
and one dimension takes the form of a line. 



Lines. — There are several kinds of lines used in drawing — ■ 
straight or right lines, curved lines, and irregular or broken lines. 

Right lines are vertical, horizontal, or inclined. Curved lines are 
circular, elliptic, parabolic, cf-c. 

Surfaces. — Surfaces, which are always bounded by lines, are 
plane, concave, or convex. A surface is plane when a straight-edge 
is in contact in every point, in whatever position it is applied to it. 
If the surface is hollow so that the straight-edge only touches at 
each extremity, it is called concave ; and if it swells out so that 
the straight-edge only touches in one point, it is called convex. 

Vertical lines. — By a vertical line is meant one in the position 
wliich is assumed by a thread freely suspended from its upper ex- 
tremity, and having a weight attached at the other ; such is the 
line a b represented in fig. A. This line is always straight, and 
the shortest that can be drawn between its extreme points. 

Plumb-line. — The instrument indicated in fig. & is called a 
plumb-line. It is much employed in building and the erection 
of machinery, as a guide to the construction of vertical lines and 
surfaces. 

Horizontal line. — When a liquid is at rest in an open vessel, its 
upper surface forms a horizontal plane, and all lines drawn upon 
such surface are called horizontal lines. 

Levels. — It is on this principle that what are called fluid levels 
are constructed. One description of fluid level consists of two 
upright glass tubes, connected by a pipe communicating with the 
bottom of each. When the instrument is partly filled with water, 
tho water will stand at the same height in both tubes, and thereby 
indicate the true level. Another form, and ono more generally 
used, denominated a spirit level — spirit being usually employed — 
consists of a glass tube (fig. ©) enclosed in a metal case, a, 
attached by two supports, b, to a plate, c. The tube is almost 
filled with liquid, and the bubble of air, </. whioh remains, is 

always exactly in the Centre of tho tube when any surface, C n. OB 

which the instrument is placed, is perfactlj le^el. 

Masons, carpenters, joiners, and other mechanics, are in tho 
habit of using the instrument represented in tig. £>. oonsiBtnig 

simply of a plumb line attached to the point of junction of the two 
inclined side pieces, ah, DC, Of equal length, and connected near 
their free ends by tho cross-piece, a n, which has a mark at it* 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



centre. When the plumb line coincides with this mark, the object, 
o D, on which the instrument is placed, is exactly horizontal. 

Perpendiculars. — If the vertical line, a b, fig. 1, be placed on 
the horizontal line, c d, the two lines will be perpendicular to, and 
form right angles with, each other. If now we suppose these lines 
to be turned round on the point of intersection as a centre, always 
preserving the same relative position, they will in every position 
he perpendicular to, and at light angles with, each other. Thus 
the line, i o, fig. 5, is at right angles to the line, e f, although 
neither of them is horizontal or vertical. 

Broken lines. — It is usual to call those lines broken, which con- 
sist of a series of right lines lying in different directions — such as 
the lines b, a, e, h, f, n, fig. 14. 

Circular lines — Circumference. — The continuous line, e f g h, 
fig. 5, drawn with one of the points of a pair of compasses — of 
which the other is fixed — is called the circumference : it is evidently 
equally distant at all points from the fixed centre, o. 

Radius. — The extent of opening of the compasses, or the dis- 
tance between the two points, o, f, is called a radius, and conse- 
quently all lines, as oe, of, o g, drawn from the centre to the 
circumference are equal radii. 

Diameter. — Any right line, l h, passing through the centre o, 
and limited each way by the circumference, is a diameter. The 
diameter is therefore double the length of the radius. 

Circle. — The space contained within the circumference is a 
plane surface, and is called a circle : any part of the circumference, 
E i f, or f l g, is called an arc. 

Chords. — Right lines, e f, f g, connecting the extremities of 
arcs, are chords ; these lines extended beyond the circumference 
become secants. 

Tangent. — A right line, a b, fig. 4, which touches the circumfer- 
ence in a single point, is a tangent. Tangents are always at ri<dit 
angles to the radius which meets them at the point of contact, b. 

Sector. — Any portion, as bohc, fig. 4, of the surface of a 
circle, comprised within two radii and the arc which connects their 
outer extremities, is called a sector. 

Segment. — A segment is any portion, as e f i, fig. 5, of the 
surface of a circle, comprised within an arc and the chord which 
subtends it. 

Right, continuous, and broken lines, are drawn by the aid of the 
square and angle ; circular lines are delineated with compasses. 

Angles. — We have already seen that, when right lines are per- 
pendicular to each other, they form right angles at their inter- 
sections: when, however, they cross each other without being 
perpendicular, they form acute or obtuse angles. An acute angle 
is one which is less than a right angle, as f c d, fig. 2 ; and an 
obtuse angle is greater than a right angle, as g c d. By angle is 
generally understood the extent of opening of two intersecting 
lines, the point of intersection being called the apex. An anoie is 
rectilinear when formed by two right lines, mixlilinear when formed 
by a right and a curved line, and curvilinear when formed by two 
eurved lines. 

Measurement of angles.— -If, with the apex of an angle as the 
centre, we describe an arc, the angle may be measured by the por- 
tion of the arc cut off by the lines forming the angle, with reference 
to the whole circle ; and it is customary to divide an entire circle 



into 360 or 400* equal parts, called degrees, and instruments called 
protractors, and represented in figs. W), H, aro constructed, whereby 
the number of degrees contained in any angle are ascertain- 
able. The first, fig. [B), which is to be found in almost every set 
of mathematical instruments, being that most in use. consists of a 
semicircle divided into 180 or 200 parts. In making use of it, 
its centre, b, must be placed on the apex of the angle in such a 
manner that its diameter coincides with one side, a b, of the angle, 
when the measure of the angle will be indicated by the division 
intersected by the other side of the angle. Thus the angle, a be, 
is one of 50 degrees (abbreviated 50°), and it will always have this 
measure, whatever be the length of radius of the arc, and conse- 
quently whatever be the length of the sides, for the measuring arc 
must always be the same fraction of the entire circumference. 
The degree is divided into 60 minutes, and the minute (or 1') into 
60 seconds (or 60") ; or when the circle is divided into 400 degrees, 
each degree is subdivided into 100 minutes, and each minute into 
100 seconds, and so on. 

The other protractor, fig. H, of modem invention, possesses the 
advantage of not requiring access to the apex of the angle. It 
consists of a complete circle, each half being divided on the inner 
side into 180 degrees, but externally the instrument is square. It is 
placed against a rule, R, made to coincide with one side, c e, of the 
angle — the other side, d c, crosses two opposite divisions on the 
circle indicating the number of degrees contained in the angle. It 
will be seen that the angle, dee, is one of 50°. 

Oblique lines. — Right lines, which do not form right angles with 
those they intersect, are said to be oblique, or inclined to each 
other. The light lines, g c and f g, fig. 2, are oblique, as referred 
to the vertical line, k c, or the horizontal line, c j. 

Parallel lines. — Two right lines are said to be parallel with each 
other when they are an equal distance apart throughout then- 
length ; the lines, i k, a b, and l m, fig. 1, are parallel. 

Triangles. — The space enclosed by three intersecting lines is 
called a triangle ; when the three sides, as d e, e f, and f d, fig. 12, 
are equal, the triangle is equilateral ; if two sides only, as g h, 
and g i, fig. 9, are equal, it is isosceles ; and it is scalene, or irregular, 
when the three sides are unequal, as in fig. 6. The triangle is 
called rectangular when any two of its sides, as d l and l k, fig. 10, 
form a right angle ; and in this case the side, asm, opposite to, or 
subtending the right angle, is called the hypothenuse. An instrument 
constantly used in drawing is the set-square, more commonly 
called angle; it is in the shape of a rectangular triangle, and is 
constructed of various proportions ; having an angle of 45°, as fig. 
©, of 60° as fig. In], or as fig. 0, having one of the sides which form 
the right angle at least double the length of the other. 

Polygon. — A space enclosed by several lines lying at any angle 
to each other is a polygon. It is plane when all the lines lie in one 
and the same plane; and its outline is called its perimeter. A 
polygon is triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, hepta- 
gonal, octagonal, drc, according as it has 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 sides. 
A square is a quadrilateral, the sides of which, as a b, b c, c d, 



* As another step towards a decimal notation, it was proposed, in 1790, to divide 
the circle into 400 parts. The suggestion was again revived in 1840, and actually 
adopted by several distinguished individuals. The facility afforded to calculators 
by the many submultiples possessed by the number 360, however, accounts for the 
still very general use of the ancient system of division. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



and d a, fig. 10, are equal and perpendicular to one another, the 
angles consequently also being equal, and all right angles. 

A rectangle is a quadrilateral, having two sides equal, as a b 
and f n, fig. 14, and perpendicular to two other equal and parallel 
sides, as a y and b n. 

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral, of which the opposite sides 
and angles are equal ; and a lozenge is a quadrilateral with all the 
sides, but only the opposite angles equal. 

A trapezium is a quadrilateral, of which only two sides, as h i 
and M l, fig. 9, are parallel. 

Polygons are regular when all their sides and angles are equal, 
and are otherwise irregular. All regular polygons are capable of 
being inscribed in a circle, hence the great facility with which they 
may be accurately delineated. 

OBSERVATION'S. 

We have deemed it necessary to give these definitions, in order 
to make our descriptions more readily understood, and we propose 
now to proceed to the solution of those elementary problems with 
which, from their frequent occurrence in practice, it is important 
that the student should be well acquainted. The first step, how- 
ever, to be takon, is to prepare the paper to be drawn upon, so 
that it shall be well stretched on the board. To effect this, it 
must be slightly but equally moistened on one side with a sponge ; 
the moistened side is then applied to the board, and the edges of 
the paper glued or pasted down, commencing with the middle of 
the sides, and then securing the .corners. When the sheet is dry, 
it will be uniformly stretched, and the drawing may be executed, 
being first made in faint pencil lines, and afterwards redelineated 
with ink by means of a drawing pen. To distinguish those lines 
which may be termed working lines, as being but guides to the 
formation of the actual outlines of the drawing, we have in the 
plates represented the former by dotted lines, and the latter by fidl 
continuous lines. 

PROBLEMS. 

1. To erect a perpendicular on the centre of a given right line, as 
c d, fig. 1 . — From the extreme points, c, d, as centres, and with a 
radius greater than half the line, describe the arcs which cross each 
other hi a and b, on either side of the line to be divided. A line, 
A B, joining these points, will be a perpendicular bisecting the line, 
c d, in G. Proceeding in the same manner with each half of the line, 
c g and g d, we obtain the perpendiculars, i k and l m, dividing 
the line into four equal parts, and we can thus divide any given 
right line into 2, 4, 8, 16, &c, equal parts. This problem is of 
constant application in drawing. For instance, in order to obtaiu 
the principal lines, vx and y z, which divide the sheet of paper 
into four equal parts; with the points, rstu, taken as near the 
edge of the paper as possible, as centres, we describe the arcs 
which intersect each other in v and q; and with these last as 
centres, describe also the arcs which cut each other in y, z. Tho 
right lines, v x und Y z, drawn through the points, r, q, and y, z, 
respectively, are perpendicular to each other, and serve as guides 
in drawing on different parts of the paper, and are merely pencilled 
in, to be afterwards effaced. 

2. To ereclaperjH ndicular on any given point, at H, in the line c D, 



fig. 1 — Mark off on the line, on each side of the point, two equal 
distances, as c h and h g, and with the centres c and g describe 
the arcs crossing at i or K, and the line drawn through them, and 
through the point h, will be the line required. 

3. To let fall a perpendicular from a point, as L, apart from 
the right line, c d. — With the point l, as a centre, describe an 
arc which cuts the line, c d, in g and d, and with these points as 
centres, describe two other arcs cutting each other in u, and the 
right line joining l and m will be the perpendicular required. In 
practice, such perpendiculars are generally drawn by means of an 
angle and a square, or T-square, such as fig. [j?. 

4. To draw parallels to any given lines, as v x and y z. — For 
regularity's sake, it is well to construct a rectangle, such asESi r, 
on the paper that is being drawn upon, which is thus done : — From 
the points v and x, describe the arcs R, s, t, u, and applying the 
rule tangentially to the two first, draw the line R s, and then in the 
same manner the line t it. The lines r t and s u are also obtained 
in a similar manner. In general, however, such parallels are more 
quickly drawn by means of the T-square, which may be slid along 
the edge of the board. Short parallel lines may be drawn with 
the angle and rule. 

5. To divide a given right line, as a b, fig. 3, into several equal 
parts. — We have already shown how a line may be divided into 2 
or 4 equal parts. We shall now give a simple method for dividing 
a line into any number of equal parts. From the point a, draw 
the line a c, making any convenient angle with a b ; mark off on a g 
as many equal distances as it is wished to divide the line a b into ; 
in the present instance seven. Join c b, and from the several 
points marked off on a c, draw parallels to c b, using the rule and 
angle for this purpose. The line a b will be divided into seven 
equal parts by the intersections of the parallel lines just drawn. 
Any line making any angle with a b, as a j, may be employed in- 
stead of a c, with exactly the same results. This is a very useful 
problem, especially applicable to the formation of scales for the 
reduction of drawings. 

6. A scale is a straight line divided and subdivided into feet, 
inches, and parts of inches, according to English measures ; or into 
metres, decimetres, centimetres, and millimetres, according to 
French measures ; these divisions bearing the same proportion to 
each other, as in the system of measurement from which they are 
derived. The object of the scale is to indicate the proportion the 
drawing bears to the object represented. 

7. To construct a scale.. — The French scale being the on* 
adopted in this work, it will be necessary to state that the metr* 
(=39-371 English inches) is the unit of measurement, and is 
divided into 10 decimetres, 100 centimetres, and 1000 millimetre*. 
If it is intended to execute the drawing to a scale iA' i or J : the 
metre is divided by -I or 5, one of the divisions being the length of a 
metre on the reduced scale. A line of this length is drawn on the 
paper, and is divided into reduced decimdtires, &c., just as tho 
metre is itself. Pig. 7 is pari of a scale tor reducing a drawing to 
One-fifth. In this scale an extra division is placed to (he left of 
zero, which is subdivided, to facilitate the obtainmenl of ai 
quired measure. For example, if we want a length correspondin r 
to 32 centimetres, we place one point of the compasses on the 
division marked B to the right oi i ero, and the other on iiv - 

■ 



in 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



division to the left, and the length comprised between these points 
will be 3 decimetres, 2 centimetres, = 32 centimetres. 

The diagonal scale. — When very minute measurements are re- 
quired, greater precision is obtained with a diagonal scale, such as 
fig. 8. It is thus constructed: — Having drawn a line and divided 
it, as in fig. 7, draw, parallel and equal to it, ten other lines, as 
c, (/, e, f, &c, at equal distances apart, crossing these with perpen- 
diculars at the decimetre divisions. From one of the smaller 
divisions to the left of zero, draw the diagonal, b i, and draw 
parallels to it from the remaining centimetre divisions, 1', 2', 3', &c. 
From the division corresponding to 1 decimetre, draw a diagonal 
to the point on the extreme parallel, i 4, cut by the zero perpen- 
dicular, and draw also the parallel diagonals, 1 — 2, 2 — 3, and 3 — i. 
It will be evident, that as in the space of the ten horizontal lines, 
the diagonal extends one division to the left, it will intersect each 
intermediate line, as the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c, at the distance of 1, 2, 3, 
&c, tenths of such division, in the same direction, so that the 
diagonal line, 2', will cut the 5th line at a point 2 T 5 T of a division 
distant from zero. Thus, one point of the compasses being placed 
on the point I, and the other on the intersection of the same 
horizontal line with the perpendicular of the decimetre division 3, 
the measure comprised between them will be 3 decimetres, 2 cen- 
timetres, and T 5 „, or 5 millimetres — 325 millimetres. 

8. To divide a given angle, as f c T>,Jig. 2, into two equal angles. 
— With the apex, c, as a centre, describe the arc, h i, and with the 
two points of intersection, h, i, as centres, describe the arcs cutting 
each other in J ; join j c, and the right line, i c, will divide the 
angle, f c d, into two equal angles, hcj and j c i. These may 
be subdivided in the same manner, as shown in the figure. An 
angle may also be divided by means of either of the protractors, 

9. To draw a tangent to a given circle, OBDH, fig. 4. — If it is 
required to draw the tangent through a given point, as D, in the 
circle, a radius, c d, must be drawn meeting the point, and be pro- 
duced beyond it, say to e. Then, by the method already given, 
draw a line, f g, perpendicular to c e, cutting it in d, and it 
will be the tangent required. If, however, it is required to draw 
the tangent through a given point, as a, outside the circle, a 
straight line must be drawn joining the point, a, and the centre, c, 
of the circle. After bisecting this line in the point, o, with this 
point as a centre, describe a circle passing through a and c, and 
cutting the given circle in b and h ; right lines joining a b and 
a H will both be tangents to the given circle, and the radii c b and 
c h will be perpendiculars to a b and a h respectively. 

10. To find the centre of a given circle, or that with which a given 
arc, as e f g, fig. 5, is drawn. — With any three points, e, f, g, 
as centres, describe arcs of equal circles, cutting each other, and 
through the points of intersection draw right lines, i o and. l o ; 
o, the point of intersection of these two liues, is the required 
centre. 

11. To describe a circle through any three points not in a right 
line. — Since only one circle can pass through the same three points, 
and since any circle may be described when the centre is found 
and a point in the circumference given — this problem is solved in 
exactly the same manner as the preceding. 

12. To inscribe a circle in a given triangle, as a e c, fig. 6. — • 



A circle is said to be inscribed in a figure, when all the sides of tho 
latter are tangents to it. Bisect any two of the angles by right 
lines, as a o, B o, or c o ; and from the point of intersection, o, let 
fall perpendiculars to the sides, as o e, o f, and o g. These per- 
pendiculars will be equal, and radii of the required circle, o being 
the centre. 

13. To divide a triangle, as g k i, fig. 9, into two equal parts. — If 
the parts are not required to be similar, bisect one side, as g i, in the 
point, o, with which, as a centre, describe the semicircle, g k i, of 
which g i is the diameter. This semicircle will be cut in the point, 
K, by the perpendicular, K o ; mark off on g i a distance, g l, equal 
to g K, and draw the line, l m, parallel to h i. The triangle, g l M, 
and the trapezium, h i l m, will be equal to each other, and each 
equal to half the triangle, ghi. If the given triangle were g n i, 
it would also be divided into two equal parts by the line, l m. 

14. To draiv a square double the size of a given square, a b c d, 
fig. 10. — After producing from different corners any two sides 
which are at right angles to each other, as d a and d c, to h and l, 
with the centre, d, and radius, d b, describe the quadrant or quarter 
of a circle, f b e ; and through the points of intersection, f and e, with 
the lines, d a and d l, draw parallels to d l and d a respectively, or 
tangents to the quadrant, fbe; the square, f g e d, will be double 
the area of the given square, abcd; and in the same manner a 
square, held, may be drawn double the area of the square, 
f g e d. It is evident that the diagonal of one square is equal to 
one side of a square twice the size. 

15. To describe a circle half the size of a given circle, as A c B D, 
fig. 11. — Draw two diameters, ab and c d, at right angles to 
each other; join an extremity of each, as a, c, by the chord, a c. 
Bisect this chord by the perpendicular, e f. The radius of the 
required circle will be equal to e g. It follows that the annular 
space shaded in the figure is equal to the smaller circle within it. 

16. To inscribe in given circles, as in fig. 12, an equilateral 
triangle and a regular hexagon. — Draw any diameter, g f, and with 
G, as a centre, describe the arc, doe, its radius being equal to that 
of the given circle ; join d e, e f, and e d, and def will be the 
triangle required. The side of a regular hexagon is equal to the 
radius of the circumscribing circle, and, therefore, in order to in- 
scribe it in a circle, all that is necessary is to mark off on the cir- 
cumference the length of the radius, and, joining the points of in- 
tersection, as kiihmj, the resulting figure will be the hexagon 
required. To inscribe figures of 12 or 24 sides, it is merely ne- 
cessary to divide or subdivide the arcs subtended by the sides 
obtained as above, and to join the points of intersection. It is 
frequently necessary to draw very minute hexagons, such as screw- 
nuts and bolt-heads. This is done more quickly by means of the 
angle of 60°, frO, which is placed against a rule, K, or the square, 
in different positions, as indicated in fig. 12. 

17. To inscribe a square in a given circle, as a c b d, fig. 13. — ■ 
Draw two diameters, as a b, c d, perpendicular to one another, and 
join the points of intersection with the circle, and a c b d will be 
the square required. 

18. To describe a regular octagon about a circle having a given 
radius, as o e, fig. 13. — Having, as in the last case, drawn two 
diameters, as e f, g h, draw other two, u, k l, bisecting the 
angles formed by the former; through the eight points tjf interscc- 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



11 



tion with the circle draw the tangents, e, k, g, j, f, l, i — these tan- 
gents will cut each other and form the regular octagon required. 
This figure may also be drawn by means of the square, and angle 
of 45% ©. 

19. To construct a regular octagon of which one side is given, as 
A. ~B,fig. 14. — Draw the perpendicular, o d, bisecting a b ; draw a f 
parallel to o d, produce a b to c, and bisect the angle, c a f, by the 
line e A, making e a equal to a b. Draw the line o g, perpendi- 
cular to, and bisecting e a. o g will cut the vertical, o d, in o, 
which will be the centre of the circle circumscribing the required 
octagon. This may, therefore, at once be drawn by simply mark- 
ing off arcs, as e h, H f, &c, equal to a b, and joining the points, 
e, h, f, &c. By dividing and subdividing the arcs thus obtained 
we can draw regular figures of 16 or 32 sides. The octagon is 
a figure of frequent application, as for drawing bosses, bearing" 
brasses, &c. 

20. To construct a regular -pentagon in a given circle, asabcdf, 
also a decagon in a given circle, as e r M,Jig. 15. — The pentagon 
is thus obtained ; draw the diameters, a i, e j, perpendicular to each 
other ; bisecting o e in x, with k as a centre, and k a as radius, 
describe the arc, a l ; the chord, a l, will be equal to a side of the 
pentagon, which may accordingly be drawn by making the chords 
which form its sides, as ae,fd,ec,cb, and b a, equal to a l. 
By bisecting these arcs, the sides of a decagon may be at once 
obtained. A decagon may also be constructed thus : — Draw two 
radii perpendicular to each other, as o m and o R ; next, the tan- 
gents, n m and n r. Describe a circle having n m for its diameter ; 
join k, and p the centre of this circle, the line, r p, cutting the 
circle in a ; r a is the length of a side of the decagon, and applying 
it to the circle, as r b, &c, the required figure will be obtained. 
The distance, r a or r c, is a mean proportional between an entire 
radius, as r n, and the difference, c n, between it and the radius. 
A mean proportional between two lines is one having such relation 
to them that the square, of which it is the one side, is equal to the 
rectangle, of which the other two are the dimensions. 

21. To construct a rectangle of which the sides shall be mean pro- 
portionals between a given line, as a c, Jig. 16, and one a third or 
two-thirds of it. — a c, the given line, will be the diagonal of the 
required rectangle ;. with it as a diameter describe the circle ab cd. 
Divide a c into three equal parts in the points, m, n, and from these 
points draw the perpendiculars, m d and n b ; the lines which join 
the points of intersection of these lines with the circle, as a b, a d, 
c b, c d, will form the required rectangle, the side of which, c d, is 
a mean proportional between c m and c a, or — 

Cm:CD::CD:CA; 
that is to say, the square of which c d is a side, is equal to a rec- 
tangle of which c a is the length, and cm the height, because 

C D x C D = C m x C A* 
In like manner, a r> is a mean proportional between c a and m a. 
This problem often occurs in practice, in measuring timber. Tims 
the rectangle inscribed in the circle, fig. 16, which may bo con- 
sidered as representing the section of a tree, is the form pf the 
beam of the greatest strength which can be obtained from the 
tree. 



$«v tin* nuteM itmi ruliH glvon ui the end ol tli 



i, ijiti i 



APPLICATIONS. 

designs for inlaid pavements, ceilings, and balconies. 

PLATE II. 

The problems just considered are capable of a great variety of 
applications, and in Plate II. will be found a collection of some of 
those more frequently met with in mechanical and architectural 
constructions and erections. In order, however, that the student 
may perfectly understand the different operations, we would 
recommend him to draw the various designs on a much larger 
scale than that we have adopted, and to which we are necessarily 
limited by space. The figures distinguished by numbers, and 
showing the method of forming the outlines, are drawn to a larger 
scale than the figures distinguished by letters, and representing the 
complete designs. 

22. To draw a. pavement consisting of equal squares, jigs. A and 
1. — Taking the length, a b, equal to half the diagonal of the 
required squares, mark it off a number of times on a horizontal 
line, as from a to b, b to c, &c. At a erect the perpendicular 
i h, and draw parallels to it, as d e, g f, &c, through the several 
points of division. On the perpendicular, i h, mark oft" a number 
of distances equal to a b, and draw parallels to a e, through the 
points of division, as h g, i f, &c. A series of small squares will 
thus be formed, and the larger ones are obtained simply by draw- 
ing the diagonals to these, as shown. 

23. To draw a pavement composed of squares and interlaced 
rectangles, figs. [§ and 2. — Let the side, as c d, of the square be 
given, and describe the circle, l m q b, the radius of which is equal 
to half the given side. With the same centre, o, describe also 
the larger circle, k n p i, the radius of which is equal to half the 
side of the square, plus the breadth of the rectangle, a b. Draw 
the diameters, a c, e d, perpendicular to each other; draw tan- 
gents through the points, a, d, c, e, forming the square, j n f g ; 
draw the diagonals j f, g, h, cutting the two circles in the points, 
I, b, k, L, m, n, p, q, through which chaw parallels to the diagonals. 
K will be perceived that the lines, a e, e c, c d, aud d a, are 
exactly in the centre of the rectangles, and consequently servo to 
verify their correctness. The operation just described is repeated, 
as far as it is wished to extend the pattern or design, many of the 
lines being obtained by simply prolonging those already drawn. 
In inking this in, the student must be verj careful n<'t to cross the 
lines. This design, though analogous to the first, is somewhat 
different in appearance, and is applicable to the construction of 
trellis-work, and other devices. 

24. To draw a Grecian border or frieze, jigs. @ and :i. — On two 
straight lines, asAB, ac, perpendicular to each other, mark off, 
as often as accessary, a distance, a i, representing the width, 

of the ribbon forming the pattern. Through all the points o\ 
division, draw parallels to a b, a o — thus forming a series of small 

squares, guided by Which the pattern DOB) be at Once inked in, 
equal distances being maintained between the sets of liiu -. as in 

fig. ©. This ornament is frequently mot with in architectural 

being used for ceilings, cornices, railings, and balconies; als< 

cabinet work and machinery for borders, and for wood and Iron 

('ratings. 

25. To draw a pavement cowif* 



12 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



g(ms,fgs. D and !. — With a radius, e o, equal to half the width, 
ef, of the octagon, describe a circle, e g f h, and, as was shown 
in reference to fig. 13, Plate I., draw the octagon circumscribing 
it — the square, a b c d, being first obtained, and its diagonals, 
A c, b d, drawn cutting the circle in the points, i, J, K, l, tangents 
being then drawn through these points. The octagon may also 
be formed by marking oft' from each corner of the square, a, b, c, d, 
a distance equal to a o, or half its diagonal — and thereby will be 
obtained the points of junction of the sides of the octagon. The 
pattern is extended simply by repeating the above operation, the 
squares being formed by the sides of four contiguous octagons, 
which are inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizontal lines. 
This pattern is generally produced in black and white marble, 
or in stones of different colours, whereby the effect is distinctly 
brought out. 

26. To draw a. pavement composed of regular hexagons, Jigs. H 
and 5. — With a radius, a o, equal to a side, a b, of the hexagon, 
describe a circle, in which inscribe the regular hexagon, abcdei. 
The remaining hexagons will readily be obtained by producing, in 
different directions, the sides and diagonals of this one. In fig. g, 
the hexagons are plain and shaded alternately, to show their 
arrangement ; but in practice they are generally all of one colour. 

27. To draw a pavement composed of trapeziums, combined in 
squares, figs. \? and 6. — Draw the square, abcd; also its diago- 
nals, a c, b d ; construct the smaller square, abed, concentric with 
the first. On the diagonal, b d, mark the equal distances, or, if, and 
through e and/ draw parallels to the diagonal, a c; join the points 
of intersection of these with the smaller squares by the fines, kl, 
mn, which will give all the lines required to form the pattern, 
requiring merely to be produced and repeated to the desired 
extent. Very beautiful combinations may thus be formed in 
different kinds of wood for furniture and panels. 

28. To draw a 'panel design composed of lozenges, figs. © and 7. — 
On a straight line, a b, mark off the length of a side of the lozenge 
twice ; construct the equilateral triangle, a b c; draw the line c d, 
perpendicular to a b ; and draw a e and b f parallel to d c, and 
E F parallel to a b. Construct the equilateral triangle, edf, cut- 
ting the triangle, a b c, in g and h, and join g h. In this manner 
are obtained the lozenges, aghd and eghc, and by continuing 
the lines and drawing parallels at regular distances apart, the 
remainder of the pattern will be readily constructed — this being 
repeated to any desired extent. 

29. To draw a panel pattern composed of isosceles triangles, figs. [L, 
and 12. — If in the last-mentioned fig. ©, we draw the longitudinal 
diagonal of each lozenge, we shall obtain the type of the pattern 
L- We will, however, suppose that the base, ab, of the triangle is 
given, instead of the side of the lozenge. Mark off this length 
twice on the line^ a b, and construct the equilateral triangle, a c d, 
just as in the preceding case; also the second similar triangle, 
d e f, thus obtaining the points g and h. Join a h, g b, e h, and 
g f, &.c, and each point of intersection, as i, l. &c, will be the 
apex of three of the isosceles triangles. The pattern, [L, is pro- 
duced by giving these triangles various tints. 

The patterns we have so far given are a few of the common 
arrangements of various regular polygons. An endless variety of 
patterns may be produced by combining .these different figures, 



and these are of great use in many arts, particularly for cabinet 
inlaid mosaic work, as well as for pavements and other ornamental 
constructions. 

30. To draw an open-work casting, consisting of lozenges and 
rosettes, figs. H and 8. — The lozenge, abed, being given, the points, 
a, b, c, d, being each the centre of a rosette, draw and indefinitely 
produce the diagonals, a c, b d, which must always be perpendicular 
to each other. Through the points, a, b, c, d, draw parallels to 
these diagonals, also an indefinite number of such parallels at 
equal distances apart. The intersections of these lines will be the 
centres of rosettes and lozenges alternately, and the former may 
accordingly be drawn, consisting merely of circles with given radii. 
The centres of the rosettes are joined by straight lines, and to 
right and left of these, at the given distances, fg, fh, parallels to 
them are drawn, thereby producing the concentric lozenges com- 
pleting the pattern. 

31. To draw a pattern for a ceiling, composed of small squares or 
lozenges, and irregular hit symmetrical octagons, figs. and 9. — • 
The rectangle, abcd, being given, its corners forming the centres 
of four of the small lozenges, draw the lines, e f, g h, dividing the 
rectangle into four equal parts ; next mark off the semi-diagonals 
of the lozenges, as a i, a o, and join i and o. The centre lines of 
the pattern being thus obtained, the half-breadths, fg, fh, are 
marked on each side of these, and the appropriate parallels to them 
drawn. In extending the pattern by repetition, the points corres- 
ponding to i and o will be readily obtained by drawing a series of 
parallel lines, as 1 1 and o o. By varying the proportions between 
the lozenges and the octagons, as also those between the different 
dimensions of each, a number of patterns may be produced of very 
varied appearance, although formed of these simple elements. 

32. To draw a stone balustrade of an open-work pattern, com- 
posed of circular and straight ribbons interlaced, figs. 3 and 10. — ■ 
Construct the rectangle, abcd, its comers being the centres of 
some of the required circles, which may accordingly be drawn, with 
given radii, as a b, c d ; after bisecting a b in e, and drawing the 
vertical e g, make e f equal to e a, and with f as a centre, draw 
the circle having the radius, f^, equal to Ab, drawing also the 
equal circles at c, b, e, &c. Draw verticals, such as gh, tangents 
to' each of the circles, which will complete the lines required for 
the part of the pattern, 3, to the left. The rosettes to the right 
are formed by concentric circles of given radii, as e e, e/. The 
duplex, fig. 3, maybe supposed to represent the pattern on the 
opposite sides of a stone balustrade. Where straight lines are run 
into parts of circles, the student must be careful to make them 
join well, as the beauty of the drawing depends greatly on this 
point. It is better to ink in the circles first, as it is practically 
easier to draw a straight line up to a circle than to draw a circle to 
suit a straight line. 

33. To draw a pattern for an embossed plate or casting, composed 
of regular figures combined in sepiares, figs. K and 11. — Two 
squares being given, as abcd and f g h i, concentric, but with the 
diagonals of one parallel to the sides of the other, draw first the 
square, abcd, and next the inner and concentric one, efgh. The 
sides of the latter being cut by the diagonals, a c and b d, in the 
points, i,j, k, I, through these draw 7 parallels to the sides of tho 
square, abcd, and finally, with the. centre, o, describe a smaV 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



13 



circle, the diameter of which is equal to the width of the indented 
crosses, the sides of these being drawn. tangent to this circle. 
Thus are obtained all the lines necessary to delineate this pattern ; 
the relievo and intaglio portions are contrasted by the latter being 
shaded. 

In the foregoing problems, we have shown a few of the many 
varieties of patterns producible by the combination of simple 
regular figures, lines, and circles. There is no limit to the multi- 
plication of these designs ; the processes of construction, however, 
being analogous to those just treated of, the student will be able 
to produce them with every facility. 



SWEEPS, SECTIONS, AND MOULDINGS. 
PLATE III. 

34. To draw in a square a series of arcs, relieved by semicircular 
mouldings, figs. A and 1. — Let a b be a side of the square ; draw 
the diagonals cutting each other in the point, c, through which 
draw parallels, d e, c f, to the sides ; with the corners of the 
square as centres, and with a given radius, a g, describe the four 
quadrants, and with the points, d, f, e, describe the small semicircles 
of the given radius, d a, which must be less than the distance, d b. 
This completes the figure, the symmetry of which may be verified 
by drawing circles of the radii, c g, c h, winch should touch, the 
former the larger quadrants, and the latter the smaller semi- 
circles. If, instead of the smaller semicircles, larger ones had 
been drawn with the radius, d b, the outline would have formed a 
perfect sweep, being free from angles. This figure is often met 
with in machinery, for instance, as representing the section of a 
beam, connecting-rod, or frame standard. 

35. To draw an arc tangent to two straight lines. — First, let the 
radius, a b, fig. 2, be given ; with the centre, a, being the point 
of intersection of the two lines, a b, a c, and a radius equal 
to a b, describe arcs cutting these lines, and through the points of 
intersection draw parallels to them, b o, c o, cutting each other in 
o, which will be the centre of the required arc. Draw perpen- 
diculars from it to the straight lines, a b, a c, meeting them in 
D and e, which will be the points of contact of the required arc. 
Secondly, if a point of contact be given, as b, fig. 3, the lines 
being a b, a c, making any angle with each other, bisect the 
angle by the straight line, a d ; draw b o perpendicular to a b, from 
the point, b, and the point, o, of its intersection with a d, will bo 
the centre of the required arc. If, as in figs. 2 and 3, we draw 
arcs, of radii somewhat less than o b, we shall form conges, which 
stand out from, instead of being tangents to, the given straight 
lines. This problem meets with an application in drawing fig. GB, 
which represents a section of various descriptions of castings. 

36. To draw a circle tangent to three given straight lines, which 
make any angles with each other, fig. 4. — Bisect the angle of the 
lines, ab and a c, by the straight line, a e, and the angle formed 
by c d and c a, by the line, c f. a e and c F will cut each other 
in the point, o, which is at an equal distance from each side, and 
is consequently the centre of the required circle, which may be 
drawn with a radius, equal to a lino from the point, 0, perpendi- 
cular to any of the sides. 'Ibis problem is necessary for the com- 
pletion of fig. H3. 



37. To draiv the section of a stair rail, fig. ©. — This gives rise 
to the problems considered in figs. 5 and 6. First, let it be re- 
quired to draw an arc tangent to a given arc, as a b, and to the 
given straight line, c d, fig. 6 — d being the point of contact with 
the latter. Through d draw e f perpendicular to c d ; make f d 
equal to o b, the radius of the given arc, and join o f, through 
the centre of winch draw the perpendicular, g e, and the point, e, of 
its intersection with e f, will be the centre of the required arc, 
and e d the radius. Further, join o e, and the point of intersec- 
tion, b, with the arc, a b, will be the point of junction of the two 
arcs. Secondly, let it be required to draw an arc tangential to a 
given arc, as a b, and to two straight lines, as b c, c d, fig. 5. 
Bisect the angle, b c d, by the straight line, c e ; with the centre, c, 
and the radius, c h, equal to that of the given arc, o a, describe 
the arc, o g ; parallel to b c draw i h j, cutting e c in J. Join o j, 
the line, o j, cutting the arc, h g, in a ; join c g, and draw o k pa- 
rallel to c g ; the point, k, of its intersection with e j, will be 
the centre of the required arc, and a line, k l or k m, perpendicular 
to either of the given straight lines, will be the radius. 

38. To draw the section of an acorn, fig. [5). — This figure calls 
for the solution' of the two problems considered in figs. 9 and 10. 
First, it is required to draw an arc, passing through a given point, 
a, fig. 9, in a line, a b, in which also is to be the centre of the 
arc, this arc at the same time being a tangent to the given arc, c. 
Slake a d equal to o c, the radius of the given arc ; join o d, and 
draw the perpendicular, f b, bisecting it. b, the point of inter- 
section of the latter line, with a b, is the centre of the required arc, 
a e c, a b being the radius. Secondly, it is required to draw an arc 
passing through a given point, a, fig. 10, tangential to a given arc, 
bcd, and having a radius equal to a. With the centre, o, of the 
given arc, and with a radius, o e, equal to o c, plus the given radius, 
a, draw the arc e ; and with the given point, a, as a centre, and 
with a radius equal to a, describe an arc cutting the former in e 
— e will be the centre of the required arc, and its point of contact 
with the given arc will be in c, on the line, o e. It will be seen 
that in fig. [§), these problems arise in drawing either side of the 
object. The two sides arc precisely the same, but reversed, and 
the outline of each is equidistant from the centre line, which should 
always be pencilled in when drawing similar figures, it being ditti- 
cult to make them symmetrical without such a guide. This is an 
ornament frequently met with in machinery, and in articles of 
various materials and uses. 

39. To draw a wave curie, formed by ores, equal and tangent to 
each other, and passing through given points, a, b, their radius being 
equal to half the distu nee, A B, Jigs, g and 7. — Join A B. and draw 

the perpendicular, e f, bisecting ii in c. With the centres, a and 
c, and radius, a c describe arcs cutting each other in O, and with 
the centres, B and 0, Other two cutting each Other in HJ Q and a 

will be the centres of the required arcs, forming the curve or 
sweep, acb. This curve is very common in architecture, and is 
styled the cyrna recta, 

40. To draw a similar enrre to the /'receding, but formed by 
ares of a given radius, as a i,Jigs. 1?" and 11. — Divide the straight 
line into four equal parts by the perpendiculars, b f, >; a, and 
on; then, with the centre, a., and gives radius, ,v i, which must 
always be greater than the quarter of a b, describe the an 



14 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



cutting cd in c; also with the centre, b, a similar arc cutting 
g h in h; c and h will be the centres of the arcs forming the re- 
quired curve. Whatever be the given radius, provided it is not 
too small, the centres of the arcs will always be in the lines, c d 
and g h. It will be seen that the arcs, c i and H l, cut the straight 
lines, c d and g h, in two points respectively. If we take the 
second points, el, as centres, we shall form a similar curve to the 
last, but with the concavity and convexity' transposed, and called 
the cyma reversa. The two will be found in fig. [?", the first at a, 
and the second at b. This figure represents the section of a 
door, or window frame — it is one well known to carpenters and 
masons. 

The little instrument known as the " Cymameter," affords a 
convenient means of obtaining rough measurements of contours 
of various classes, as mouldings and bas-reliefs. It is simply a 
light adjustable frame, acting as a species of holding socket for a 
mass of parallel slips of wood or metal — a bundle of straight 
wires, for example. Previous to applying this for taking an im- 
pression of measurement, the whole aggregation of pieces is 
dressed up on a flat surface, so that their ends form a perfect 
plane, like the ends of the bristles in a square cut brush ; and 
these component pieces are held in close parallel contact, with just 
enough of stiff friction to keep them from slipping and falling 
away. The ends of the pieces are then applied well up to the 
moulding or surface whose cavities and projections are to be mea- 
sured, and the frame is then screwed up to retain the slips in the 
position thus assumed. The surface thus moulds its sectional 
contour upon the needle ends, as if the surface made up of these 
ends was of a plastic material, and a perfect impression is there- 
fore carried away on the instrument. The nicety of delineation is 
obviously bounded by the relative fineness of the measuring ends. 

41. To draw a baluster of a duplex contour, figs. © and 8. — It is 
here necessary to draw an arc tangent to, or sweeping into two 
known arcs, a i and c d, and having its centre in a given hori- 
zontal, e t. Extend e i to h, making i h equal to g d, the radius 
of the are, c d. Join g h, bisecting' g h by a perpendicular; this 
will cut e h in the point, e, which is the centre of the required arc — 
e i being its radius. A line joining e g cuts cd in c, the point of 
contact of the two arcs. The arc, d f, which is required to be a 
tangent to c n, and to pass through the point, f, is drawn with the 
centre, o, obtained by bisecting the chord, d f, by a perpendicular 
which cuts the radius of the arc, c d. This curve has, in fig. @, to 
be repeated both on each side of the vertical line, m n, and of the 
horizontal line,/g\ 

42. To draw the section of a baluster of simple outline, as fig. [J=Q. 
— We have here to draw an arc passing through two points, a, b, 
fig. 12, its centre being in a straight line, b c; this arc, moreover, 
requiring to join at d, and form a sweep with another, d e, having 
its centre in a line, f d, parallel to b c. Joining b a, a perpendicu- 
lar bisecting b a, will cut b c in o, which will be the centre of the 
first arc, and that of the second may now be obtained, as in 
problem 37, fig. 6. 

43. The base of the baluster, fig. H, is in the form of a curve, 
termed a scotia. It may be drawn by various methods. The 
following are two of the simplest — according to the first, the 
rorve may be formed by arcs sweeping into each other, and tan- 



gents at a and c to two given parallels, a, b, c d, fig. 13. Through 
a and c draw the perpendiculars, c o and a e, and divide the latter 
into three equal parts. With one division, fa, as a radius, 
describe the first arc, a g h ; make c i equal to F a, join i f, and 
bisect i f by the perpendicular, o k, which cuts c o in o. o will 
be the centre of the other arc required. The line, o h, passing 
through the centres, o and f, will cut the arcs in the point of junc- 
tion, h. It is in this manner that the curve in fig. H is obtained. 
The second method is to form the curve by two arcs sweeping 
into each other and passing through the given points, a b, fig. 14, 
their centres, however, being in the same horizontal line, c d, 
parallel to two straight lines, e f and b c, passing through the 
given points. Through a, draw the perpendicular, a i. i, its point 
of intersection with c d, is the centre of one arc, a d. Next draw 
the chord, b d, the perpendicular bisecting which, will cut c D in o, 
the centre of the other arc, the radius being o d or o b. This curve 
is more particularly met with in the construction of bases of the 
Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders of architecture. 

With a view 7 to accustom the student to proportion his designs 
to the rules adopted in practice in the more obvious applications, 
we have indicated on each of the figs. &, [§, ©, &c., and on the 
corresponding outlines, the measurements of the various parts, in 
millimetres. It must, however, at the same time be understood, 
that the various problems are equally capable of solution with 
other data ; and, indeed, the number of applications of which the 
forms considered are susceptible, will give rise to a considerable 
variety of these. 



ELEMENTARY GOTHIC FORMS AND ROSETTES. 
PLATE IV. 

44. Having solved the foregoing problems, the student may 
now attempt the delineation of more complex objects. He need 
not, however, as yet, anticipate much difficulty, merely giving his 
chief attention to the accurate determination of the principal lines, 
which serve as guides to the minor details of the drawing. 

It is in Gothic architecture that we meet with the more numer- 
ous applications of outlines formed by smoothly joined circles and 
straight lines, and we give a few examples of this order in Plate IV. 
Fig. 5 represents the upper portion of a window, composed of a 
series of arcs, combined so as to form what are denominated cuspid 
arches. The width or span, a b, being given, and the apex, c , 
joining a c, c b, draw the bisecting perpendiculars, cutting a b in 
d and e. These latter are the centres of the sundry concentric 
arcs, which, severally cutting each other on the vertical, c f, form 
the arch of the window. The small interior cuspids are drawn 
in the same manner, as indicated in the figure ; the horizontal, 
g h, being given, also the span and apexes. These interior arches 
are sometimes surmounted by the ornament, M, termed an ceil-de- 
bamf consisting simply of concentric circles. 

45. Fig. 1 represents a rosette, formed by concentiic circles, 
the outer interstices containing a series of smaller circles, forming 
an interlaced fillet or ribbon. The radius, a o, of the circle, con- 
taining the centres of all the small circles, is supposed to be given. 
Divide it into a given number of equal parts. With the points of 
division, 1, 2, 3, &c, as centres, describe the circles tangential to 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



15 



each other, forming the fillet, making the radii of the alternate 
ones in any proportion to each other. Then, with the centre, o, 
describe concentric circles, tangential to the larger of the fillet 
.circles of the radius, a b. The central ornament is formed by 
arcs of circles, tangential to the radii, drawn to the centres of the 
fillet circles, their convexities being towards the centre, o ; and the 
arcs, joining the extremities of the radii, are drawn with the actual 
centres of the fillet circles. 

46. Fig. 6 represents a quadrant of a Gothic rosette, distin- 
guished as radiating. It is formed by a series of cuspid arches and 
radiating mullions. In the figure are indicated the centre lines of 
the several arches and mullions, and in fig. 6 d , the capital, con- 
necting the mullion to the arch, is represented drawn to double 
the scale. With the given radii, a b, a c, a d, a e, describe the 
different quadrants, and divide each into eight equal parts, thus 
obtaining the centres for the trefoil and quadrefoil ornaments in 
and between the different arches. We have drawn these orna- 
ments to a larger scale, in figs. 6*, 6 b , and 6 C , in which are indi- 
cated the several operations required. 

47. Fig. 4 also represents a rosette, composed of cuspid arches 
and trefoil and quadrefoil ornaments, but disposed in a different 
manner. The operations are so similar to those just considered, 
that it is unnecessary to enter into further details. 

48. Fig. 7 represents a cast-iron grating, ornamented with 
Gothic devices. Fig. 7 m is a portion of the details on a larger 
scale, from which it will be seen that the entire pattern is made 
up simply of arcs, straight lines, and sweeps formed of these two, 
the problems arising comprehending the division of lines and 
angles, and the obtainment of the various centres. 

49. Figs. 2 and 3 are sections of tail-pieces, such as are sus- 
pended, as it were, from the centres of Gothic vaults. They also 
represent sections of certain Gothic columns, met with in the 
architecture of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In order to 
draw them, it is merely necessary to determine the radii and centres 
of the various arcs composing them. 

Several of the figures in Plate IV. are partially shaded, to 
indicate the degree of relief of the various portions. We have in 
this plate endeavoured to collect a few of the minor difficulties, 
our object being to familiarize the student to the use of his instru- 
ments, especially the compasses. These exercises will, at the same 
time, qualify him for the representation of a vast number of forms 
met with in machinery and architecture. 



OVALS, ELLIPSES, PARABOLAS, VOLUTES, &c. 

PLATE V. 
50. The ove is an ornament of the shape of an egg, and is 
formed of arcs of circles. It is frequently employed in architecture, 
and is thus drawn: — The axes, ab and cd, fig. 1, being given, 
Dcrpcndicular to each other ; with the point of intersection, o, as a 
centre, first describe the circle, cade, half of which forms tho 
upper portion of the ove. Joining b c, make c f equal to b e, 
the difference between tho radii, o c, o b. Bisect f b by the per- 
pendicular, G H, cutting c D in h. H will be the centre, and h c 
the radius of the arc, c j; and i, the point of intersection (if hc 
wilh a ii, will he the centre, and i b the radius of the smaller arc, 



i b k, which, together with the arc, H k, described with the centre, 
L, and radius, l d, equal to h c, form the lower portion of tho 
required figure ; the lines, g h, l k, which pass through the 
respective centres, also cut the arcs in the points of junction, 
j and k. This ove will be found in the fragment of a cornice, 
fig- A- A more accurate and beautiful ove may be drawn by 
means of the instrument represented in elevation and plan in the 
annexed engraving. . 




The pencil is at a, in an adjustable holder, capable of sliding 
along the connecting-rod, b, one end of which is jointed at c, to a 
slider on the horizontal bar, D, whilst the opposite end is similarly 
jointed to the crank arm, e, revolving on the fixed centre, f, on 
the bar. By altering the length of the crank, and the position of 
the pencil on the connecting-rod, the shape and size of the ove 
may be varied as required. 

51. The oval differs from the ove in having the upper portion 
symmetrical with the lower ; and to draw it, it is only necessary to 
repeat the operations gone through in obtaining the curve, ibh 
fig. 1. 

52. The ellipse is a figure which possesses the following pr»* 
perty : — The sum of the distances from any point, a, fig. 2, in tho 
circumference, to two constant points, b, c, in the longer axis, is 
always equal to that axis, D e. The two points, b, c, are termed 
foci. The curve forming the ellipse is symmetric witf. referunc* 
both to the horizontal line or axis, d e, and to the vertical line, f g, 
bisecting the former in o, the centre of the ellipse. Lines, as 
b a, c a, b f, c f, &c, joining any point in the circumference w ith 
the foci, b and c, aro called vectors, and any pair proceeding from 
one point arc together equal to the longer axis, d e, which is called 
the transverse, f g being tho conjugate axis. There are different 
methods of drawing this curve, which we will proceed to in 
dicate. 

53. First Method. — This is based on the definition given above, 
and requires that tho two axes be given, as n E and F&, tig. - J. 
Tho foci, b and c, aro first obtained by describing an arc, with the 
extremity, g or f, of tho conjugate axis as a centre, and with a 
radius, i' c, equal to halt' the transverse axis; the arc will cut tlio 
latter in the points, B and e, the loci. It' new we divide l> x. 
Unequally in n, and with the radii, D u. t: n, and the feci as centre.,, 

we describe ares severally cutting each other in i. j, k, aj tin t 

four points will lie in the circumference. It', further, w e ag.do 

unequallj divide de, say in l, we can similarly obtain fburot'iei 



16 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



points in the circumference, and we can, in like manner, obtain any 
number of points, when the ellipse may be traced through them 
by hand. The large ellipses which are sometimes required in con- 
structions, are generally drawn with a trammel instead of compasses, 
the trammel being a rigid rule with adjustable points. — The 
gardener's ellipse: To obtain this, place a rod in each of the foci 
of tlie required ellipse ; round these place an endless cord, which, 
when stretched by a tracer, will form the vectors ; and the ellipse 
will be drawn by carrying the tracer round, keeping the cord 
always stretched. 

54. Second Method. — Take a strip of paper, having one edge 
straight, as d b, and on this edge mark a length, a b, equal to half the 
transverse axis, and another length, b c, equal to half the conju- 
gate axis. Place the strip of paper so that the point, a, of the 
longer measurement, lies on the conjugate, f g, and the other point, 
c, on the transverse axis, d e. If the strip be now caused to 
rotate, always keeping the two points, a and c, on the respective 
axes — the other point, b, will, in every position, indicate a point 
in the circumference which may be marked with a pencil, the 
ellipse being afterwards traced through the points thus obtained. 

55. Third Method, fig. 3. — It is demonstrated, in that branch of 
geometry w T hich treats of solids, as we shall see later on, that 
if a cone, or cylinder, be cut by a plane inclined to its axis, the 
resulting section will be an ellipse. It is on this property that 
the present method is based. The transverse and conjugate axes 
being given, as a b and c d, cutting each other in the centre, o, 
draw any line, a e, equal in length to the conjugate axis, c d, 
and on a e, as a diameter, describe the semicircle, ega, Join 
E B, and through any number of points, taken at random, on e a, 
as 1, 2, 3, &c, draw parallels to e b. Then, at each point of 
division, on b a, erect perpendiculars, 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, &c, cutting 
the semicircle, and, at the corresponding divisions obtained on 
a b, erect perpendiculars, as 1' a', 2' b, 3' c, &c, and make them 
equal to the corresponding perpendiculars on e a. A line traced ■ 
through the various points thus obtained, that is, the extremities, 
a', b', c', &c, of the lines, will form the required ellipse. 

56. Fourth Method. — On the transverse axis, a b, and with the 
centre, o, describe the semicircle, a f b, the axis forming its dia- 
meter ; and with the diameter, h i, equal to the conjugate axis, 
describe the smaller semicircle, hdi. Draw radii, cutting the 
two semicircles, the larger in the points, i,j, k, I, &c, and the 
smaller in the points, i',f, V, V, &c. It is not necessary that 
the radii should be at equiangular distances apart, though they 
are drawn so in the plate for regularity's sake. Through the latter 
points draw parallels to the transverse axis, A b, and through the 
former, parallels to the conjugate axis, c d, the points of intersection 
of these lines, as q, r, s, t, &c, will be so many points in the required 
ellipse, which may, accordingly, be traced through them. It 
follow-s from this, that, in order to draw an ellipse, it is sufficient 
to know either of the axes, and a point in the circumference. Let 
the axis, a b, De given, and a point, r, in the circumference, which 
must always lie within perpendiculars passing through the extre- 
mities of the given axis. Through r draw a line, rf, parallel to 
A b, and a line, rj, perpendicular to it; with the centre, o, and 
radius, o a, equal half the given axis, describe the arc, cutting 
rj in j ; join _; o, and the line, j o, will cut rf in f : of will be 



equal to half the conjugate axis, c d. If the conjugate axis, c D, 
be given, proceed as before ; the arc, however, in this case, having 
the smaller radius, or, and cutting rf in/'; then join oj,' pro. 
dueing the line till it cuts rj, which will be in/, and oj will equal 
halt the transverse axis, a b. It has already been shown how to 
describe an ellipse, when the two axes are given. 

We may here give a method invented a short time back by Mr. 
Crane of Birmingham, for constructing an ellipse with the com- 
passes. This method applies to all proportions, and produces as 
near an approximation to a true ellipse, as it is possible to obtain 
by means of four arcs of circles. 

By applying compasses to any true ellipse, it will be seen that 
certain parts of the curve approach very near to arcs of circles, 
and that these parts are about the vertices of its true axes ; and by 
the nature of an ellipse, the curve on each side of either axis is 
equal and similar; consequently, if arcs of circles be drawn 
through all the vertices, meeting one another in four points, tho 
opposite arcs being equal and similar, the resulting figure will bo 
indefinitely near an ellipse. Four circles, described from four 
different points, but with only two different radii, are then required. 
These four points may be all within the figure ; the centres of the 
two greater circles may either be within or without, but tire 
centres of the two circles at the extremities of the major axis 
must always be within, and, consequently, the whole four points 
can never be without the figure. Again, the proportions of the 
major and minor axes may vary infinitely, but they can never bo 
equal ; therefore, any rule for describing ellipses must suit all pos- 
sible proportions, or it does not possess the necessary requirements. 
Moreover, if any rule apply to one certain proportion and not to 
another, it is evident that the more the proportions differ from that 
one — whether crescendo or diminuendo — the greater will be the 
difference of the result from the true one. From this it follows, 
that if a rule applies not to all, it can only apply to one propor- 
tion ; and also, that if it apply to a certain proportion and not to ' 
another, it can only be correct in that one case. 

Let a b be any major axis, and c r> any minor axis ; produce them 
both in either direction, say towards f and h, and make a f equal 
to cg; then join c a, and through f draw f h parallel to c a. 





Set off B I, A J, and c k, equal to H c ; join J K, and bisect it in R, 
and at r erect a perpendicular, cutting c d, or c d produced, at M ; 
then make g e equal to g m ; J, E, I, M, will be the centres of the 
four circles required. Through the points, j and i, draw M n, m o, 
e p, e q, each equal to w c ; then w n and e f will be the radii of 
the greater circles, and j n, i o, of the less : the points of contact 
will therefore be at n, o, p, q, and the figure drawn through A, n, 
c, o, b, q, d, f, will be the required ellipse. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



17 




Several instruments have been invented for drawing ellipses, 
many of them very ingeniously contrived. The best known of 
these contrivances, are those of Farey, Wilson, and Hick — the 
last of which we present in the annexed engraving. It is shown 

as in working order, 
with a pen for drawing 
ellipses in ink. It con- 
sists of a rectangular base 
plate, a, having sharp 
countersunk points on 
its lower surface, to hold 
the instrument steady, 
and cut out to leave a 
sufficient area of the 
paper uncovered for the 
traverse of the pen. 
It is adjusted in position 
by four index lines, 
setting out the trans- 
verse and conjugate 
axes of the intended 
ellipse — these lines 
being cut on the inner 
edges of the base. Near 
one end of the latter, a vertical pillar, b, is screwed down, for the 
purpose of carrying the traversing slide-arm, c, adjustable at any 
height, by a milled head, d, the spindle of which carries a pinion 
in gear with a rack on the outside of the pillar. The outer end 
of the arm, c, terminates in a ring, with a universal joint, e, 
through which the pen or pencil-holder, f, is passed. The pillar, 
B, also carries at its upper end a fixed arm, g, formed as an ellip- 
tical guide-frame, being accurately cut out to an elliptical figure, as 
the nucleus of all the varieties of ellipse to be drawn. The centre 
of this ellipse is, of course, set directly over the centre of the 
universal joint, e, and the pen-holder is passed through the guide 
and through the joint, the flat-sided sliding-piece, h, being kept in 
contact with the guide, in traversing the pen over the paper. The 
pen thus turns upon its joint, e, as a centre, and is always held in 
its proper line of motion by the action of the slider, H. The dis- 
tance between the guide ellipse and the universal joint determines 
the size of the ellipse, which, in the instrument here delineated, 
ranges from 2 J inches by If, to ^ by £ inch. In general, how- 
ever, these instruments do not appear to be sufficiently simple, or 
convenient, to be used with advantage in geometrical drawing. 

57. Tangents to ellipses. — It is frequently necessary to deter- 
mine the position and inclination of a straight lino which shall 
be a tangent to an elliptic curve. Three cases of this nature 
occur : when a point in the ellipse is given ; when some external 
point is given apart from the ellipse ; and when a straight line 
is given, to which it is necessary that the tangent should be 
parallel. 

First, then, let the point, a, in tho ellipse, fig. 2, bo given ; 
draw the two vectors, c a, b a, and produce the latter to in ; bisect 
tho angle, M a c, by the straight line, u r ; this lino, n p, will be 
the tangent required; that is, it will touch tho curve in the point, 
a, and in that point alone. 



Secondly, let the point, l, be given, apart from the ellipse, fig 
3. Join l with i, the nearest focus to it, and with l as a centre, 
and a radius equal to l i, describe an arc, M i n. Next, with the 
more distant focus, h, as a centre, and with a radius equal to the 
transverse axis, A b, describe a second arc, cutting the first in m 
and n. Join m h and n h, and the ellipse will be cut in the points 
v and x ; a straight line drawn through either of these points from 
the given point, l, will be a tangent to the ellipse. 

58. Thirdly, let the straight line, q r, fig. 2, be given, paralle 
to which it is required to draw a tangent to the ellipse. From the 
nearest focus, b, let fall on q r the perpendicular, s b ; then with 
the further focus, c, as a centre, and with a radius equal to the 
transverse axis, d e, describe an arc cutting b s in s ; join c s, and 
the straight line, c s, will cut the ellipse in the point, t, of contact 
of the required tangent. All that is then necessary is, to dnwv 
through that point a line parallel to the given line, q r, the 
accuracy of which may be verified by observing whether it bisects 
the line, s b, which it should. 

59. — The oval of Jive centres, Jig. 4. — As in previous cases, tire 
transverse and conjugate axes are given, and we commence by 
obtaining a mean proportional between their halves; for this 
purpose, with the centre, o, and the semi-conjugate axis, o c, as 
radius, we describe the arc, c i k, and then the semi-circle, a l k, of 
which a k is the diameter, and further prolong o c to l, o l being 
the mean proportional required. Next construct the parallelo- 
gram, a g c o, the semi-axes constituting its dimensions; joinino- 
c a, let fall from the point, g, on the diagonal, c a, the per- 
pendicular, g h d — which, being prolonged, cuts the conjugate axis 
or its continuation in D. Having made c m equal to the mean 
proportional, o l, with the centre, d, and radius, d m, describe 
an arc, a m b ; and having also made a n equal to the mean pro- 
portional, o l, with the centre, H, and radius, h n, describe the 
arc, n a, cutting the former in a. The points, h, a, on one side, 
and h', b, obtained in a similar manner on the other, together 
with the point, d, will be the five centres of the oval ; and straight 
lines, R H a, s h' b, and T a D, q b d, passing through the respective 
centres, will meet the curve in the points of junction of the various 
component arcs, as at r, p, q, s. 

This beautiful curve is adopted in the construction of many 
kinds of arches, bridges, and vaults ; an example of its use is given 
in fig. ©. 

60. The parabola, fig. 5, is an open curve, that is, one which 
does not return to any assumed starting point, to however great 
a length it may be extended ; and which, consequently, can never 
enclose a space. It is so constituted, that any point in it, d, is at 
an equal distanco from a constant point, c, termed the focus, and 
in a perpendicular direction, from a straight line, a b, called the 
directrix. Tho straight line, F g, perpendicular to tho directrix, 
A b, and passing through the focus, c, is the axis of die curve, 
which it divides into two symmetrical portions. The point, a, 
midway between f and c, is the apex of the curve. There are 
several methods of drawing this curve. 

61. First method: — Tins is based cm the definition just given 

and requires that Hie Pocus and directrix be known, as e. and a n 
Take any points on the directrix, a B, as ,\. r, h, i. and througl 

them draw parallels to Hie <uds, r u, as also the Btraighl lines 

e 



18 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



a c, e c, h c, i c, joining them with the focus. Draw perpen- 
diculars bisecting these latter lines, and produce them until they 
cut the corresponding parallels, and the points of intersection, b, 
*, D, e, will be in the required curve, which may be traced through 
them. 

62. The straight lines which were just drawn, cutting the 
parallels in different points of the curve, are tangents to the curve 
at the several points. If, then, it is required to draw a tangent 
through a given point, c, it is obtained simply by joining c c, 
making h c equal to c c, and bisecting the angle, h c c, by the 
fitraight line, c d, which will be the required tangent. If the point 
given be apart from the curve, the procedure will be the same, 
but the line corresponding to H c will not be parallel to the axis. 

63. Second method: — We have here given the axis, a g, the 
apex, a, and any point, I, in the curve. From the point, Z, let fall 
on the axis the perpendicular, I g, and prolong this to e, making 
o e equal to I g. Divide I g into any number of equal parts, as 
in the points, i, j, k, through which draw parallels to the axis ; 
divide also the axis, a g, into the same number of equal parts, as 
in the points, /, g, h; through these draw lines radiating from the 
point, e, and they wall intersect the parallels in the points, m, n, o, 
which are %o many points in the curve. 

64. If it is required to draw a line tangent to a given parabola, 
and parallel to a given line, J k, we let fall a perpendicular, c l, 
on this last ; this perpendicular will cut the directrix in p, and p n 
drawn parallel to the axis will cut the curve in the point of con- 
tact, n. 

We find frequent applications of this curve in constructions and 
machinery, on account of the peculiar properties it possesses, 
winch the student will find discussed as he proceeds. 

65. The objects represented in figs. ®, ©', are an example of 
the application of this curve. They are called Parabolic Mirrors, 
and are employed in philosophical researches. The angles of 
incidence of the vectors, ab, a c, a d, are equal to the angles of 
reflection of the parallels, b b', c c', d d'. It follows from this pro- 
perty, that if in the focus, a, of one mirror, b f, the flame of a 
lamp, or some incandescent body be placed, and in the focus, a', of 
the opposite mirror, V f, a piece of charcoal or tinder, the latter 
will be ignited, though the two foci may be at a considerable dis- 
tance apart; for all the rays of caloric falling on the mirror, bf, 
are reflected from it in parallel lines, and are again collected by 
the other mirror, b'f, and concentrated at its focus, a'. 

66. To draw an Ionic volute, fig. 6. — The vertical, a o, beino- 
given, and being the length from the summit to the centre of the 
volute, divide it into nine equal parts, and with the centre, o, and 
a radius equal to one of these parts, describe the circle, abed, 
which forms what is termed the eye of the volute. In this circle 
(represented on a larger scale in fig. 7) inscribe a square, its dia- 
gonals being vertical and horizontal ; through the centre, o, draw 
the lines, 1 — 3, and 4 — 2, parallel to the sides, and divide the half 
of each into three equal parts. With the point, 1, as a centre, 
and the radius, 1 a (fig. 6), draw the arc, a e, extending to the 
horizontal line, 1 e, which passes through the point, 2. With this 
iatter point as a centre, and a radius equal to 2 e, draw the next 
are, extending to the vertical line, 2 /, which passes through the 
point, 3, the next centre. The points, 4, 5, 6, &c, form the sub- 



sequent centres ; the arcs in all cases joining each other on a line 
passing through their respective centres. The internal curve is 
drawn in the same way; the points, 1', 2', 3', &c, fig. 7 bi ", being 
the centres of the component arcs. The first arc is drawn with a 
radius, 1' a', a ninth less than 1 a, and the others are consequently 
proportionately reduced, as manifest in fig. 6. The application of 
the volute will be found in fig. !B. 

67. To draw a curce langentially joining two straight lines, a b 
and b c,fig. 8, the points a and c being the points of junction. — Join 
a c, and bisecting a c in d, join d with b, the point of intersection 
of the lines, a b, b c. Bisect b d in e', which will be a point in the 
curve. Join e c, e a, and bisect the lines, e c, e a, by the per 
pendiculars, ab, c d; make e/and e' f equal to a fourth part of 
e d; /and/' will be other two points in the curve. Proceed in 
the same way to obtain the points, g h and g' V, or more if desir 
able, and then trace the curve through these several points. Tliis 
method is generally adopted by engineers and constructors, and will 
be met with in railways, bridges, and embankments, and wherever 
it is necessary to connect two straight lines by as regular and per- 
fect a curve as possible. It is also particularly applicable where 
the scale is large. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 
LINES and surfaces. 

68. The square metre is the unit of surface measurement, just 
as the linear metre is that of length. The square metre is sub- 
divided into the square decimetre, the square centimetre, and the 
square millimetre. Whilst the linear decimetre is a tenth part of 
the metre, the square decimetre is the hundredth part of the square 
metre. In fact, since the square is the product of a number mul- 
tiplied into itself, 

0-lrn. X - lm. = 0*01 square metres. 
In the same manner the square centimetre is the ten-thousandth 
part of the square metre ; for 

0-01 m. X 0-01 m. = 0.0001 square metres. 
And the square millimetre is the millionth part of the square 
metre ; for, 

0-001 m. X 0-001 m. = 0-000001 square metres. 
It is in this way that a relation is at once determined between 
the units of linear and surface measurement. 

Similarly in English measures, a square foot is the ninth part of 
a square yard ; for 

1 foot X 1 foot= i yard X J yard = \ square yard. 
A square inch is the 144th part of a square foot, and the 1296th 
part of a square yard ; for 

1 inch x 1 inch = jL foot X rg foot = T y j square fool, 
and 

1 inch X 1 inch =3^ yard x 3^ yard= j-^Vb square yard. 
This illustration places the simplicity and adaptability of the 
decimal system of measures, in strong contrast with the complexity 
of other methods. 

69. Measurement of surfaces. — The surface or area of a square, 
as well as of all rectangles and parallelograms, is expressed by the 
product of the base or length, and height or breadth measured 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



19 



perpendicularly from the base. Thus the area of a rectangle, the 

base of which measures 1-25 metres, and the height -75, is equal to 

1-25 x -75 = -9375 square metres, 

The area of a rectangle being known, and one of its dimensions, 
the other may be obtained by dividing the area by the given 
dimension. 

Example. — The area of a rectangle being '9375 sq. m., and the 
base l - 25 m., the height is 

•°m = -75 m. 
1S5 

This operation is constantly needed in actual construction ; as, for 
instance, when it is necessary to make a rectangular aperture of a 
certain area, one of the dimensions being predetermined. 

The area of a trapezium is equal to the product of half the sum 
of the parallel sides into the perpendicular breadth. 

Example. — The parallel sides of a trapezium being respectively 
1-3 m., and 1*5 m.,and the breadth -8 m., the area will be 

1-3 + 1-5 

x -8 = 1-12 sq. m. 

The area of a triangle is obtained by multiplying the base by 
half the perpendicular height. 

Example. — The base of a triangle being 2 - 3 m., and the perpen- 
dicular height 1-15 m., the area will be 



2-3 x 



115 
2 



1-3225 sq. m. 



The area of a triangle being known, and one of the dimensions 
given — that is, the base or the perpendicular height — the other 
dimension can be ascertained by dividing double the area by the 
given dimeiiaion. Thus, in the above example, the division of 
(1-3225 sq. m. x 2) by the height 1-15 m. gives for quotient the base 
2-3 m., and its division by the base 2-3 m. gives the height 1-15 m. 

70. It is demonstrated in geometry, that the square of the 
hypothenuse, or longest side of a right-angled triangle, is equal to 



the sum of the squares of the two sides forming the right angle. 
It follows from this property, that if any two of the sides of a 
right-angled triangle be given, the third may be at once ascertained. 

First, If the sides forming the right angle be given, the hypo* 
thenuse is determined by adding together their squares, and 
extracting the square root. 

Example. — The side, a b, of the triangle, ab c, fig. 16, PI. I, 
being 3 m., the side b c, 4 m., the hypothenuse, a c, will bo 



ac = ^3 2 +4 2 = V9 + 16= ^25 = 5 m. 

Secondly, If the hypothenuse, as a c, be known, and one of 
the other sides, as a b, the third side, b c, will be equal to the 
square root of the difference between the squares of a c and a b. 

Thus assuming the above measures — 



bc= ^25 — 9 = 4/16 = 4m. 

The diagonal of a square is always equal to one of the sides rnul 
tiplied by ^2; therefore, as V2 = 1-414 nearly, the diagonal ia 
obtained by multiplying a side by 1-414. 

Example. — The side of a square being 6 metres, its diagonal 
= 6 x 1-414 = 8-484 m. 
The sum of the squares of the four sides of a parallelogram ia 
equal to the sum of the squares of its diagonals. 

71. Regular polygons. — The area of a regular polygon is 
obtained by multiplying its perimeter by half the apothegm or per 
pendicular, let fall from the centre to one of the sides. 

A regular polygon of 5 sides, one of which is 9-8 m., and the 

perpendicular distance from the centre to one of the sides 5'6 m., 

will have for area — 

9'8 x 5 x 51= 137-2 sq. m. 
2 ' 

The area of an irregular polygon will be obtained by dividing it 

into triangles, rectangles, or trapeziums, and then adding together 

the areas of the various component figures. 



TABLE OF MULTIPLIERS FOR REGULAR POLYGONS OF FROM 3 TO 12 SIDES. 



Names. 



Multipliers. 



B 



D 

Area 

1 side => 1. 



Internal Angle. 



F 

Apothegm 

or 

Perpendicular. 



Triangle, . . 
Square, . . . 
Pentagon, . 
Hexagon, . 
Heptagon, . 
Octagon, 
Enneagon, . 
Decagon, . 
Undecagon, 
Duodecagon, 



3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 



2-000 
1-414 
1-238 
1-156 
1.111 
1-080 
1-062 
1-050 
1-040 
1-037 



1-730 

1-412 

1-174 

radius. 

•867 

•765 

•681 

•616 

•561 

•516 



•579 
•705 
•852 
side. 
1-160 
1-307 
1-470 
1-625 
1-777 
1-940 



•433 
1-000 
1-720 
2-598 
3-634 
4-828 
6-182 
7-694 
9-365 
11196 



60° 0' 

90° 0' 
108° 0' 
120° 0' 
128° 34'f 
135° 0' 
140° 0' 
144° 0' 
147° 16' T \ 
150° 0' 



•2886751 

•5000000 

•6881910 

•8660254 

1-0382607 

1-2071069 

1-3737387 

1-5388418 

1-7028436 

1-8660264 



By means of this table, we can easily solve many interesting 
problems connected with regular polygons, from the triangle up to 
the duodecagon. Such are the following : — 

First, The width of a polygon being given, to find the radius qf 
(lie circumscribing circle. — When the number of sides is even, the 
wkltli is understood as the perpendicular distance between two 
opposite and parallel sides; when the number IB uneven, it is 
twice the perpendicular distance from the centre to one wide. 



Rule. — Multiply half the width of the polygon by the factor in 
column A, corresponding to the number of aides, and the product 
will be the required radius. 

Example*— Let l8-5m. be the width of an octagon; then, 



18-5 



x 1-08 = 9-99 in. ; 



or say 10 metres, the radius of the olroumscrlbing circle. 



20 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Second, The radius of a circle being given, to find the length of 
the side of an inscribed 'polygon. 

Rule. — Multiply the radius by the factor in column B, corre- 
sponding to the number of sides of the required polygon. 

Example. — The radius being 10 m., the side of an inscribed 
octagon will be — 

10 x -765 = 7-65 m. 

Third, The side of a polygon being given, to find the radius of 
the circumscribing circle. 

Rule. — Multiply the side by the factor in column C, corre- 
sponding to the number of sides. 

Example. — Let 7-65 m. be the side of an octagon ; then 
7-65 X 1-307 == 10 m., nearly. 

Fourth, The side of a polygon being given, to find the area. 

Rule. — Multiply the given side by the factor in column D, 
corresponding to the number of sides. 

Example. — The side of an octagon being 7-65 m., the area will 
be— 

7-65 x 4-828 — 36-93 sq. m. 

THE CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREA OF A CIRCLE. 

72. If the circumference of any circle be divided by its diame- 
ter, the quotient will be a number which is called, the ratio of 
the circumference to the diameter. The ratio is found to be (ap- 
proximately) — 

3-1416, or 22 : 7; 
that is, the circumference equals 3-1416 times the length of the 
diameter. It is expressed, in algebraic formulas, by the Greek 
letter h (jn). Thus, if C represents the circumference of a circle, 
and D its diameter, the following formula, 

C = rt. D, or C = 3-1416 x D, 
expresses the development of the circumference. Thus, if the 
diameter of a circle, or D, = 2-7 m.-, or the radius R = 1-35 m., 
the circumference will be equal to — 

3-1416 x 2-7, or 3-1416 x 1-35 x 2 = 8-482 m. 
The circumference of a circle being known, its diameter, or radius, 
is found by dividing this circumference by 3-1416 for the former, 
or 6-2832 for the latter. Thus, the diameter, D, of a circle, the 
circumference of which is 8-482 m., is — 
8-482 



3-1416 



= 2-7 m. ; 



and the radius, R, is — 



8-482 
6-2832 



= 1-35 m. 



The area of a circle is found by multiplying the circumference by 
half the radius. — This rule is expressed in the following formula:— 

R 

The area of a circle = 2n:Rx = « R 2 . 

This term, rt R 2 , is merely the simplification of the formula. 
The number 2 being both multiplier and divisor, may be can- 
celled, and the product of R into R is expressed by R 2 , or the 
square of the radius. It follows, then, that the area of a circle is 
equal to the square of the radius multiplied by the circumference, 
or 3-1416. 

. Example. — The radius of a circle being 1-05 m., the area will 
be— 

3-1416 x 1-05 x 1-05 = 3-4635 sq. m. 

The area of a circle being known, the radius is determined by 
dividing the area by 3-1416, and extracting the square root of tho 
quotient. 

Example. — The area of a circle being 3-4635 sq. m., the radiua 



V 



3-4635 
3.1416 



1-05 m. 



The area of a circle is derived from the diameter ; thus— 



Area = 



rt D x D 



TC D 2 . 



then, since — or 3 " 141 ?— -7854, 
4 4 

the formula resolves itself into 

Area = -7854 x D 2 . 
That is to say, if we multiply the fraction, -7854, by the square of 
the diameter, the product will be the area. 

Example. — The area of a circle, the diameter of which mea- 
sures 2-1 m., is — 

•7854 x 2-1 x 2-1 = 3-4635 sq. m. 
It follows from this, that if the area of a square is known, that 
of an inscribed circle is obtainable, by multiplying by -7854 ; that 
is, the area of a square is to the area of the inscribed circle, as, 
4 : 3-1416, or 1 : -7854. 



TABLE OF APPROXIMATE RATIOS BETWEEN CIRCLES AND SQUARES. 



1. The diameter of a circle 

2. The circumference of a circle, . . . 

3. The diameter, 

4. The circumference, 

5. The area of a circle, 

6. The side of an inscribed square, . 
1. " " " . 

8. The side of a square 

9. " " 



X 


•8862 ) 
•2821 j 


X 


X 


•7071 7 


X 


•2251 C. 


X 


■6366 


X 


•1-4142 


X 


4-4430 


X 


1-1280 


X 


3-5450 



This table affords a ready solution of the following amongst 
other problems : — 

First, The diameter of a circle being -125 m. or 125 m l m (milli- 
metres), the side of a square of equal area is 

125 x -8862= 110-775"7 m . 



the side of a square of equal area, 

the side of the inscribed square. 

the area of the inscribed square. 

the diameter of the circumscribing circle. 

the circumference of the circumscribing circle. 

the diameter of an equal circle. 

the circumference of an equal circle. 



Second, The circumference of a circle being 860°7 m , the side of 
the inscribed square is 

860 x -2251 = 193-586 m / m . 
Third, The side of a square being 215-86"7 m , the diameter of 
the circumscribing circle is 

215-86 x 1-4142 = 305-27 m / ra . 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



21 



The radii and diameters of circles are to each other as the cir- 
cumferences, and xice versa. The areas, therefore, of circles are to 
each other as the squares of their respective radii or diameters. 

It follows, hence, that if the radius or diameter be doubled, the 
circumference will only be doubled, but the area will be quadrupled ; 
thus, a drawing reduced to one-half the length, and half the 
breadth, only occupies a quarter of the area of that from which it 
is reduced. 

73. Sectors — Segments. — In order to obtain the area of a sector 
or segment, it is necessary to know the length of the arc subtend- 
ing it. This is found by multiplying the whole circumference by 
the number of degrees contained in the arc, and dividing by 360°. 

Example. — The circumference of a circle being 3-5 m., an arc of 
45° will be 

3-5 x 



360 



= -4375 m. 



The length of an arc may be obtained approximately when the 

chord is known, and the chord of half the arc, by subtracting the 

chord of the whole arc from eight times the chord of the semi-arc, 

and taking a third of the remainder. 

Example. — The chord of an arc being -344 m., and that of half 

the arc "198, the length of the arc is 

•198 x 8— -344 .,__ 

= -4133 m. 

3 

The area of a sector is equal to the length of the arc multiplied 

into half the radius. 



Example. — The radius being -169 m., and the arc -266; 

•266 x -169 „ OOK ., „ ., 

= -0225 sq. m., the area of the sector. 

The area of a segment is obtained by multiplying the width ; that 
is, the perpendicular between the centre of the chord, and the 
centre of the arc, by -626, then adding to the square of the pro- 
duct the square of half the chord, and multiplying twice the 
square root of the sum by two-thirds of the width. 

Example. — Let 48 m. be the length of the chord of the arc, 
and 18 m. the width of the arc, then we have 

18 x -626 = 11-268, and (1 1*268) 2 = 126-9678; whilst 

/48\ 2 ( 2x18 

y— ) = 576; therefore, 2 x V 126-9678 + 576 x -5— = 636-24 

sq. m., the area of the segment. 

The area of a segment may also be obtained veiy approximately 
by dividing the cube of the width by twice the length of the chord, 
and adding to the quotient the product of the width into two 
thirds of the chord. Thus, with the foregoing data, we have 

18 3 



and, 



48 x 2 
48 x 2 x 18 



= 60-7 



576-0 



Total, 636-7 sq. m. 



A still simpler method, is to obtain the area of the sector of 
which the segment is a part, and then subtract the area of the 



COMPARISON OF CONTINENTAL MEASURES, WITH FRENCH MILLIMETRES AND ENGLISH FEET. 



Country. 



Austria, . 




Designation of Measure. 



(Vienna) Foot or Fuss = 12 

inches = 144 lines, 

(Bohemia) Foot, 

(Venice) Foot, 

" Foot (Palmo) 

" Foot (Architect's Meas. ) 
(Carlsruhe) Foot (new) = 10 

inches = 100 lines, 

(Munich) Foot = 12 inches = 

144 lines 

(Augsburg) Foot, 

(Brussels) Ell or Aune = 1 metre, 

" Foot, 

(Bremen) Foot = 12 inches = 

144 lines, 

(Brunswick) Foot =12 inches 

= 144 lines, 

Cracow) Foot 

Copenhagen) Foot, 

(Madrid) Foot (according to Lo 

man 

Castilian V"ara( " Liscar), 
(Havana) Vara= 8 Madrid feet, 

(Rome) Foot, 

Architect's span = | foot, . . . 
Ancient Foot, 

Knot 

Foot = li spans = 12 inches = 

96 parte 

(Hanover) Foot = 12 inches = 

1 I I lines 

(Darmstadt) Foot= 10 inches = 
100 linos 



Value in 
Millimetres. 



316-103 
296-416 
435-185 
347-398 
396-500 

300-000 

291-859 

296-168 

1,000-000 

285-588 

289-197 

285-362 
856-421 

813-821 

282-665 
885*906 
847-965 
297-896 
228422 
294*246 
284-610 

286-490 

291-995 

300-000 



Value in 
Feet. 



1-037 

•970 
1-460 
1-140 
1-301 

•984 

•958 

•972 

3-281 

•937 

'•949 

•936 
1-169 
1-029 

•927 
2-742 
2-782 
•977 
■788 
■966 
■988 

■940 

■958 

•984 



Country. 



Designation of Measure. 



Holland,, 



Lubeck, 

Mecklenburg, . . 

Modena, ■] 

Ottoman Empire 
Parma, . . . 



Poland 

Portugal , 

Prussia, , 

ssia, ■] 



Ru 

Sardinia 
Saxe, . . 
Sicilies, 



Sweden, . 



Switzerland, . 



[usoany, 

Wurtemburg 



(Amsterdam) Foot = 3 spans 

= 11 inches, 

(Rhine) Foot 

(Lubeck) Foot, 

Foot, 

(Modena) Foot, 

j(Reggio), 

(Constantinople) Grand pie,. . 
Arms-length = 12 inches = 172s 

atomi, 

(Varsovie) Foot = 12 inches = 

144 lines 

(Lisbon) Ft. (Ai-chilcct'sMcasuiv) 

" Vara = 40 inches, . . 
Berlin) Foot = 12 inches,. . . 
St. Petersburg) Russian Foot 

" Archine 

(Cagliari) Span 

(Weimar) Foot, 

Span = 12 inches (ounces = 60 

miiuiti) 

(Stockholm) Foot, 

( BfiJe and Zurich) Foot 

(Berne and Neufchatel) Foot = 

12 inches 

(< reneva) Foot 

( Lausanne) Fool 10 ilelles 

100 lilies, 

i Luoerne and other Cantons) Ft., 

ool 



Foot = 10 inches LOO lines,. 



Value in 

Millimetres. 



283-056 
813-854 
291-002 
291-002 
528-048 
530-898 
669*079 

544 670 

297 -7 69 
888-600 
1,008-868 
809 . -o 
688-161 
711-480 
202-578 
281-972 

268*670 
296-888 
804*681 

298*868 

■i,s, 900 

800-000 

648 161 
286*490 



Valuo in 
Fi t t. 



928 
080 
954 
954 
716 
742 
195 



1787 

•977 
1-111 
8-686 
L-016 
1*766 
2-884 

•664 

•925 

■860 
•974 

•999 

•962 
1*600 

■98 i 
1*080 

1-7 9 S 

•940 



22 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



triangle constituting the difference between the sector and 
segment. 

To find the area of an annular space contained between two 
concentric circles, multiply the sum of the diameters by their 
difference, and by the fraction - 7854. 

Example. — Let 100 m. and 60 m. be the respective diameters; 
then, (100 + 60) X (100 — 60) x -7854 = 5026-56 sq. m. the 
area of the annular space. 

The area of a fragment of such annular space will be found 
by multiplying its radial breadth by half the sum of the arcs, or, 
more correctly, by the arc which is a mean proportional to them. 

CIRCUMFERENCE AND AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. 

74. The circumference of an ellipse is equal to that of a circle, 
of which the diameter is a mean proportional between the two axes ; 



therefore, it will be obtained by multiplying such mean propor- 
tional by 3 g 141 6, the ratio between the diameter and circumference 
of a circle. 

Example. — Let 10 m. and 6-4 m. be the lengths of the respec- 
tive axes ; then, 

YlO x 6-4 x 3-1416 = 25-1328 m. 

The area of the ellipse is obtained by multiplying the product 
of the two axes by -7854, the ratio between the diameter and the 
area of the circle. 

Example.— 10 X 6-4 X -7854 = —50-2656 sq. m. 

These rules meet with numerous applications in the indus- 
trial arts, and particularly in mechanics, as will be seen further 
on. The examples given will enable the student to understand 
the various operations, as well as to solve other analogous 
problems. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE STUDY OF PROJECTIONS. 



75. To indicate all the dimensions of an object by pictorial deli- 
neation, it is necessary to represent it under several different 
aspects. These various views are comprehended under the general 
denomination of Projections, and usually consist of elevations, plans, 
and sections. The object, then, of the study of projections, or 
descriptive geometry, is the reproduction on paper of the appear- 
ances of all bodies of many dimensions as viewed from different 
positions. 

It is customary to determine the projections of a body on two 
principal planes, one of which is distinguished as the horizontal 
plane, and the other as the vertical plane, or elevation. These two 
planes are also called geometric projections or plans. They are 
annexed to each other, the horizontal plan being the lower ; the 
line intersecting them is called the base line, and is always parallel 
to one of the sides of the drawing. 

It is of great importance to have a thorough knowledge of the 
elementary principles of descriptive geometry, in order to be able 
to represent, in precise and determinate forms, the contours of all 
kinds of objects ; and we shall now enter upon such explanatory 
details as are necessary, commencing primarily with the projections 
of a point and of a line. 



ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A POINT. 

PLATE VI. 

76. Let a b c d, figs. 1 and 1", be a horizontal plane — repre- 
senting, for example, the board on which the drawing is being 
made, or perhaps the surface of a pavement. Also, let a b e f be 
a vertical plane, such as a wall at one side of the piece of pave- 
ment ; the straight line, which is the intersection of these two 



planes, is the base line. Finally, let o be any point in space, the 
representation of which it is desired to effect. If, from this point, 
o, we suppose a perpendicular, o o, to be let fall on the horizontal 
plane, the point of contact, o, or the foot of tins perpendicular, 
will be what is understood as the horizontal projection of the 
given point. Similarly, if from the point, o, we suppose a per- 
pendicular, o 6, to be let fall on the vertical plane, a b e f, the 
point of contact, 6, or foot of this perpendicular, will be the 
vertical projection of the same point. These perpendiculars are 
reproduced in the vertical and horizontal planes, by drawing lines, 
6 n and n o, respectively parallel and equal to o 6 and o o. 

77. It follows from this construction, that, when the two pro- 
jections of any point are given, the position in space of the point 
itself is determinable, it being necessarily the point of intersection 
of perpendiculars erected on the respective projections of the 
point. 

As in drawing, only one surface is employed, namely, the sheet 
of paper, and we are consequently limited to one and the same 
plane, it is customary to suppose the vertical plane, abef, fig. 1, 
as forming a continuation of the horizontal plane, a b c d, being 
turned on the base line, a b, as a hinge, so as to coincide with it — ■ 
just as a book, half open, is fully opened flat on a table. We 
thus obtain the figure, d c e f, fig. 1°, representing on the paper 
the two planes of projection, separated by the base -line, a b, and 
the points, o, 6, fig. I s , represent the horizontal and vertical pro- 
jections of the given point. 

It will be remarked, that these points lie in one line, perpen- 
dicular to the base line, a b ; this is because, in the turning down 
of the previously vertical plane, the line, n 6, becomes a prolonga- 
tion of the line, no. It is necessary to observe, that the line, n 6, 
measures the distance of the point from the horizontal plane, 
whilst n o measures its distance from the vertical plane. In 
other words, if on o we erect a perpendicular to the plane, and 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



23 



measure the distance, n o', on this perpendicular, we shall obtain 
the exact position of the point in space. It is thus obvious, that 
the position of a point in space is fully determinable by means of 
two projections, these being in planes at right angles to each 
other. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE. 

78. In general, if, from several points in the given line, perpen- 
diculars be let fall on to each of the planes of projection, and 
then- points of contact with these planes be joined, the resulting 
lines will be the respective projections of the given line. 

When the line is straight, it will be sufficient to find the pro- 
jections of its extreme points, and then join these respectively by 
straight lines. 

79. Let m o, fig. 2, represent a given straight line in space, 
which we shall suppose to be, in this instance, perpendicular to 
the horizontal, and, consequently, parallel to the vertical plane of 
projection. To obtain its projection on the latter, perpendiculars, 
M m', o o', must be let fall from its extremities, m, o ; the straight 
line, m! o', joining the extremities of these perpendiculars, will be 
the required projection in the vertical plane, and in the present 
case it will be equal to the given fine. 

The horizontal projection of the given line, M o, is a mere 
point, m, because the line lies wholly in a perpendicular, m m, to 
the plane, and it is the point of contact of this line which consti- 
tutes the projection. In drawing, when the two planes are 
converted into one, as indicated in fig. 2", the horizontal and ver- 
tical projections of the given right lines, m o, are respectively the 
point, m, and the right line, m' o'. 

80. If we suppose that the given straight line, M o, is horizon- 
tal, and at the same time perpendicular to the vertical plane, as 
in figs. 3 and 3", the projections will be similar to the last, but 
transposed ; that is, the point, o', will be the vertical, whilst the 

' straight line, m o, will be the horizontal projection. 

In both the preceding cases, the projections he in the same 
perpendicular line, m m, fig. 2°, and o' o, fig. 5". 

81. When the given straight line, m o, is parallel to both the 
horizontal and the vertical plane, as in figs. 4 and 4", its two pro- 
jections, m o and m' o', will be parallel to the base line, and they 
will each be equal to the given line. 

82. When the given straight line, M o, figs. 5 and 5", is parallel 
to the vertical plane, a b e f, only, the vertical projection, m' o', 
will be parallel to the given line, whilst the horizontal projection, 
m o, will be parallel to the base line. Inversely, if the given straight 
line be parallel to the horizontal plane, its horizontal projection will 
be parallel to it, whilst its vertical projection will be parallel to 
the base line. 

83. Finally, if the given straight line, m o, figs. 6 and 6", is 
inclined to both planes, the projections of it, m o, m' o', will both 
bo inclined to the base line, a b. These projections are in nil 
cases obtained by letting fall, from each extremity of the lino, per- 
pendiculars to each plane. 

The projections of a straight line being given, its position in 
space is determined by erecting perpendiculars to the horizontal 
plane, from the extremities, mo, of the projected lino, and making 
them equal to the verticals, n m' and p o'. Tho same result 
follows, if from the points, m', o', in the vertical plane, wo erect 



perpendiculars, respectively equal to the horizontal distances, 
m n and p o. The free extremities of these perpendiculars meet 
each other in the respective extremities of the line in space. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A PLANE SURFACE. 

84. Since all plane surfaces are bounded by straight lines, as 
soon as the student has learned how to obtain the projections of 
these, he will be able to represent any plane surface in the two 
planes of projection. It is, in fact, merely necessary to let fall 
perpendiculars to each of the planes, from the extremities of the 
various lines bounding the surface to be represented; in other 
words, from each of the angles or points of junction of these lines, 
by which means the corresponding points will be obtained in the 
planes of projection, which, being joined, will complete the repre- 
sentations. It is by such means that are obtained the projections 
of the square, represented in different positions in figs. 7, 7", 8, 8°, 
and 9, 9". It will be remarked, that, in the two first instances, the 
projection is in one or other of the planes an exact counterpart of 
the given square, because it is parallel to one or other of the 
planes. 

85. Thus, in fig. 7, we have supposed the given surface to be 
parallel to the horizontal plane ; consequently, its projection in 
that plane will be a figure, m o p q, equal and parallel to itself, 
whilst the vertical projection will be a straight line, p' o', parallel to 
the base line, a b. 

86. Similarly, in fig. 8, the object being supposed to be paralle. 
to the vertical plane, its projection in that plane will be the equa. 
and parallel figure, m! d p' q', whilst that in the horizontal plane 
will be the straight line, m o. When the two planes of projection 
are converted into one, the respective projections will assume the 
forms and positions represented in figs. 7°, 8'. 

87. If the given surface is not parallel to either plane, but yet 
perpendicular to one or the other, its projection in the plane to 
which it is perpendicular will still be a straight line, as p' o', figs. 
9 and 9", whiist its projection in the other plane will assume the 
form, mop q, being a representation of the object somewhat fore- 
shortened in the direction of the inclination. 

The cases just treated of have been those of rectangular sur- 
faces, but the same principles are equally applicable to any poly- 
gonal figures, as may be seen in figs. 12 and 12°, which will ha 
easily understood, the same letters in various characters indicating 
corresponding points and perpendiculars. Nor does the obtain- 
ment of tho projections of surfaces bounded by curved lines, ;us 
circles, require the consideration of other principles, as we shall 
proceed to show, in reference to figs. 10 and 11. 

88. In tho first of these, fig. 10, the circular disc, m o r q. is siqv- 
posed to bo parallel to tho vertical plane, a b e f, and its projec- 
tion on that plane will bo a circle, m 1 of pf q', equal and parallel to 
itself, whilst its projection on tho horizontal plane, a B C i>, will ho 
a straight line, </ m o, equal to its diameter, l!'. on the other hand, 
the disc is parallel to the horizontal plane, as in tig. U, iis vertical 
projection will he the Btraight lino, />'«' m>, whilst its horizontal 

projection will ho the circle, op m </• 
If the given circular disc ho inclined to either plane, Hs projeo 

(ion in that plane will ho an ellipse ; and if it is inclined to both 
planes, both projections will DB ellipses. 'This will ho inadoi\i- 



24 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



dent by obtaining the projections of various points in the circum- 
ference. 

89. When constructing the projections of regular figures, it 
facilitates the process considerably if projections of the centres and 
centre lines be first found, as in figs. 10, 11, and 12. 

In general, the projection of all plane surfaces may be found, 
when it is known how to obtain the projections of points and lines. 
And, moreover, since solids are but objects bounded by surfaces 
and lines, the construction of their projections follows the same 
rules. 



PRISMS AND OTHER SOLIDS. 

PLATE VII. 

90. Before entering upon the principles involved in the repre- 
sentation of solids, the student should make himself acquainted 
with the descriptive denominations adopted in science and art, 
with reference to such objects; and we here subjoin such as will 
be necessary. 

Defkitioxs. — A solid is an object having three dimensions; 
that is, its extent comprises length, width, and height. A solid 
also possesses magnitude, volume, or capacity. 

There are several forms of solids. The polyhedron is a solid, 
bounded by plane surfaces ; the cone, the cylinder, and the sphere, 
are bounded by curved surfaces. Those are termed solids of re- 
volution, which may be defined as generated by the revolution of a 
plane about a fixed straight fine, termed the axis. Thus, a ring, 
or annular torus, is a solid, generated by the revolution of a circle 
about a straight line, lying in the plane of the circle, and at right 
angles to the plane of revolution. A prism is a polyhedron, the 
lateral faces of which are parallelograms, and the ends equal and 
parallel polygons. A prism is termed right, when the lateral 
faces, or facets, are perpendicular to the ends ; and it is regular, 
when the ends are regular polygons. A prism is also called a 
parallelopiped, when the ends are rectangles, or parallelograms; 
and when it is formed of six equal and square facets, it is termed 
a cube, or regular hexahedron. This solid is represented in fig. ^. 
Other regular polyhedra, besides the cube, are distinguished by 
appropriate names ; as, the tetrahedron, the octahedron, and the 
icosahedron, which are bounded externally, respectively, by four, 
eight, and twenty equilateral triangles; and the duodecahedron, 
which is terminated by twelve regular pentagons. A pyramid 
is a polyhedron, of which all the lateral facets are triangles, 
uniting in one point, the apex, and having, as bases, the sides of a 
polygon, which is the base of the pyramid, as fig. ©. The prism 
and pyramid are triangular, quadrangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, 
&c., according as the polygons forming the bases are triangles, 
squares, pentagons, hexagons, &c. 

By the height of a pyramid is meant the length of a perpendi- 
cular let fall from the apex on the base ; the pyramid is a right 
pyramid when this perpendicular meets the centre of the base. 

A truncated pyramid, or the frustum of a pyramid, is a solid 
which may be described as a pyramid having the apex cut off" by 
a plane parallel, or inclined to the base. 

A cylinder is a solid which may be described as generated by 
a straight line, revolving about, and at any given distance from, a 



rectilinear axis to which it is parallel. A cylinder which is gene- 
rated by a rectangle, revolving about one of its sides as an axis, 
is said to be a right cylinder ; such a one is represented in fig. §. 

A cone, fig. [p", is a solid generated by a triangle, revolving .about 
one of its sides as an axis. A truncated cone is one which is 
terminated short of the apex by a plane parallel, or inclined to 
the base. This solid is also called the frustum of a cone. A 
cone is said to be right when its base is a circle, and when a per- 
pendicular let fall from the apex passes through the centre of 
the base. 

A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle 
about its diameter as an axis, as fig. @. 

A spheric sector is a solid generated by the revolution of a plane 
sector, as o' l e', about an axis, a b, which is any radius of tlie 
sphere of which the sector forms a part. When the axis of 
revolution is exterior to the generating sector, the spheric sector 
obtained will be annular or zonic. The zone described by the 
arc, l e', is the base of the spheric sector. The zone becomes a 
spheric arc when the axis of revolution is one of the radii forming 
the sector. 

A spheric wedge, or ungula, is any portion, as ihgf, fig. 7*, 
comprised between two semicircular planes inclined to each other 
and meeting in a diameter, as i g, of the sphere. That portion of 
the surface of the sphere which forms the base of the ungula, is 
termed a gore. 

A spheric segment is any part of a sphere cut off by a plane, 
and may be considered as a solid of revolution generated by the 
revolution of a plane segment about its centre line. The plane 
surface is the base of the segment. When the plane passes 
through the centre of the sphere, two equal segments are obtained, 
termed hemispheres. 

A segmental annulus is a solid generated by the revolution of a 
plane segment, d' b' k, fig. 7, about any diameter, a b, of the sphere, 
apart from the segment, d' k is the chord, and m n, its projection 
on the axis, is the height of the segmental annulus. 

A zonic segment of a sphere is the part, ike d', of a sphere 
comprised between two parallel planes. 

A spheric pyramid, or pyramidal sector, is a pyramid of which 
the base is part of the surface of a sphere, of which the apex is 
the centre ; the base may be termed a spheric polygon. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A CUBE, FIG. ^. 

91. A cube, of which two sides are respectively parallel to 
the planes of projection, is represented in these planes by equal 
squares, abcd, and a' b' e' f', figs. 1" and 1. 

This is indeed but a combination of some of the simple cases 
already given. We have seen that when a side, such as a b e f, 
fig. A, is parallel to the vertical plane, its projection on the hori- 
zontal plane is reduced to a straight line, a b, fig. 1°, its projection 
on the vertical plane being a figure, a' b' e' f', fig. 1, equal to itself. 

Similarly, the side, abcd, which is parallel to the horizonta. 
plane, is projected on the vertical plane in the line, a' b', fig. 1, 
and by the figure, abcd, fig. 1°, in the horizontal plane. The 
sides, a d h e and bcge, fig. A, which are perpendicular to both 
the horizontal and the vertical plane, are represented in both sy 
straight lines, as A D and b c, fig. 1, and a' f' and b' e\ fig. I, 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



25 



being respectively in the same straight lines perpendicular to the 
base line, l t. It will also be perceived, that the base, f e g h, 
fig A? cannot be represented in the horizontal projection, nor the 
side, d c g h, in the vertical, since they are respectively immedi- 
ately behind and hidden by the sides, abcd and a b e f, repre- 
sented in the projections by the squares, abcd, fig. 1", and 
a' b' e' f', fig. 1. They are, however, indicated in the planes to 
which they are perpendicular, by the straight lines, f' e' and d c. 

92. It will be evident from these remarks, that in order to 
design a cube so that a model may be constructed, it is sufficient 
to know one of the sides, for all the sides are equal to each other. 

When the plans are intended to be used in the actual construc- 
tion of machinery or buildings, the objects should be represented 
in the projections as having then - principal sides parallel or per- 
pendicular to the horizontal and vertical plane respectively, in 
order to avoid the foreshortening occasioned by an oblique or in- 
clined position of the object with reference to these planes, because 
the actual measurements of the different parts cannot be readily 
ascertained where there is such foreshortening. 

To obtain, then, the projections of the cube, fig. &, a square 
must' be constructed, as a b c d, fig. 1", having its sides equal to 
the given side or edge, the sides a b and d c being disposed parallel 
to the base line ; next, the square must be reproduced as at a' b' e' f', 
fig. 1, on the prolongations of the sides, a d and b c, which are 
perpendicular to the base line. 

THE projections of a right square-based prism, or 

RECTANGULAR PARALLELOPIPED, FIG. U. 

93. The representation of this solid is obtained in precisely the 
same manner as that of the cube, the sides being supposed to be 
parallel or perpendicular to the respective planes of projection. 
The base of the prism being square, its horizontal projection is 
necessarily also a square, abcd, fig. 2"; but its vertical pro- 
jection will be the rectangle, a' b' e' f', fig. 2, equal to one of the 
sides of the prism. For the construction of these projections, the 
same datum as in the preceding case is required ; namely, a side of 
the base, and in addition, the height of the parallelopiped, or 
prism. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A QUADRANGULAR PYRAMID, FIG. ©. 

94. This pyramid is supposed to be inverted, and having its 
base, abcd, parallel to the horizontal plane : it follows upon this 
assumption, that its horizontal projection is represented by the 
square, abcd, fig. 3°. The axis, or centre line, o s, wliich is 
supposed to be vertical, and consequently passes through the ccntro 
of the base, is projected on the horizontal plane as a point, o, fig. 
*", and on the vertical plane as a line, o' s ; drawing through the 
point, o', of this line, the horizontal lino, a' b', equal to a sido of 
the baso, which is supposed to bo parallel to the vertical piano, wo 
shall obtain the vertical projection of the base ; and joining a's, b's', 
that of the whole pyramid, the points a' and b' may bo found by 
prolonging the parallels, a d, b c, fig. 3". This may bo conveniently 
done with tho square, and the operation is usually termed squaring 
over a measurement — that is, from one projection to another. Tho 
lateral facets, s b c and sab, aro represented in tho vortical pro- 
jection by the straight lines, a' s, b' s, fig. 1, since they are per- 



pendicular to the vertical plane ; and the projection of the facet. 
D s c, is identical with a' s b', that of the front facet, a s b, imme- 
diately behind which it is. Since each of the inclined converging 
facets is liidden by the base, they cannot be drawn in sharp lines 
in the horizontal projection ; we have, however, indicated then- 
positions in faint lines, fig. 3". Were these lines full, the projec- 
tion would be that of a pyramid with the apex uppermost, or of 
a hollow, baseless pyramid, in the same position as fig. ©. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A RIGHT PRISM, PARTIALLY HOLLOWED, 
AS FIG. ®. 

95. The vertical and horizontal projections of the exterior of 
this solid, are precisely the same as those of fig. 13 ; they are re- 
presented respectively by the square, abcd, fig. 4°, and the rec- 
tangle, a' b' e' f', fig. 4. It will be perceived, that the internal 
surfaces of this figure are such as may be supposed to form some 
of the sides of a smaller prism ; the sides, g h i j and k l m n, are 
parallel to the vertical plane, and sijj and himi perpendicular 
to it, and it follows that the projections of this lesser figure 
will assume the forms, g' h' i' j', fig. 4, and g h l k, fig. 4". 
The lines, k g, l h, are faint dotted lines, instead of being sharp 
and full, as being hid by the base, a b c d, of the external prism. 
These lines will be found to be different to the projection lines, or 
working lines. The latter are composed of irregular dots, whilst 
those which indicate parts of the figure which actually exist, but 
are hidden behind more prominent portions, are composed of regu- 
lar dots. This distinction has been adhered to throughout the 
entire series of Plates. 

97. On examining the examples just treated of, it will be ob- 
served, from the horizontal projections, that the contour, or out- 
line, is in every case square, whilst, from the vertical projections, 
it will be seen that each object is different. This demonstrates 
that one projection is not sufficient for the determination of all tho 
dimensions of an object ; and that, even in the simplest cases, two 
different projections are absolutely necessary. It will, moreover, 
be seen, as we advance, that in many cases, three, and at times 
more, projections are required, as well as sections through two or 
more planes. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A RIGHT CYLINDER, FIG. g. 

98. The axis, o M, of this cylinder is supposed to bo vertical, 
and its bases, a b, e f, will consequently be horizontal. Its pro- 
jections in figs. 5 and 5° aro represented by the rectangle, a' b' e' r', 
on the one hand, and the circle, a c b d, on tho other. It is evi- 
dent, that to draw these figuros, it is quite sufficient to know the 
radius, o a, of the base, and the height, o m ; with the given 
radius, wo describe tho circle, a c b d, which is the horizontal pro- 
jection of tho whole cylinder; then making the vortical, o' u, equal 
to tho given height, and squaring over by means o\' the parallels, 
a a', b b\ the diameter of the circle, we draw, through o' and 
M, the horizontals, a' b', e' f', completing the parallelogram, 
a' b' e' f', which is the vertical projection of the cylinder, 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A RIGHT COKE, tVi. I?. 

99. The projections of D right cono differ from those o\' the cylin- 
der solely as far as regards the \ ertioal piano. Thus it will be i< i n. 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



in figs. 6 and 6", that the horizontal projection of the cone, s a b, is 
exactly the same as that of a cylinder having an equal base ; but 
the vertical projection, s' a' b', in place of being a rectangle, is an 
isosceles triangle, of which the base is equal to the diameter of the 
circle, forming the horizontal projection, whilst the height is that 
of the cone. Similarly to the preceding case, in order to construct 
these projections, it is sufficient to know the l'adius of the circular 
base and the height. 

THE PROJECTIONS OF A SPHERE, FIG. @. 

100. A sphere, in whatever position it may be with reference 
to the planes of projection, is invariably represented in each by a 
circle, the diameter of which is equal to its own ; consequently, if 
the two projections, o and o, figs. 7" and 7, of the centre be given, 
we have merely to describe circles with these centres, with a 
radius equal to that, o a, of the given sphere. 

It would seem from this, that one projection should be sufficient 
to indicate that the object represented is a sphere ; but on referring 
to figs. 5', and 6", and 7", it will be seen that a circle is one pro- 
jection of three very different solids — namely, the cylinder, the 
cone, and the sphere. This is a further illustration of the in- 
adequacy of one projection to give a faithful representation of 
any solid form. It is true, that by shading the single projection, 
we approach nearer to the desired representation ; but still, 
such shaded projection would equally represent that of a cylinder 
with a hemispherical termination. The same remark applies to 
the shaded projections of cylinders and cones, and, indeed, to all 
solid bodies. 

OF SHADOW-LINES. 

101. To distinguish and relieve those parts of a drawing which 
are intended to indicate the more prominent portions of the object 
represented, it is customary to employ fine sharp lines for that 
part of the outline on which the light strikes in full, and strong 
and heavy lines for the parts which are at the same time in relief 
and in the shade ; the latter description of lines are called shadow- 
lines. 

For the maintenance of uniformity, it is obviously expedient 
to suppose the light to strike any object in some constant and 
particular direction. The assumed direction should be inclined, 
in order that some parts of the object may be thrown into shade, 
whilst others are more strongly illuminated. Hitherto, a uniform 
method has not been generally adopted with regard to the assumed 
direction of the rays of light. Some authors have recommended 
that it should be, as it were, parallel to that diagonal, a g, of the 
cube, fig. A> of which the projections are a c and a' e', figs. 1 and 
1* ; others, however, cause the ray of light to take the direction 
a' e' in the vertical, and d b in the horizontal plane of projection, 
and some have proposed that the ray should strike the object in 
a direction perpendicular to either of the planes. We have 
adopted the first mentioned system, and we shall shortly indicate in 
what points it is superior, and on what account it is preferable, to 
any other. 

The line which we take as the diagonal of the cube, is that 
which extends from the corner, a, of the front facet of the cube, 
fig. A, to the extreme and opposite corner, g, of the posterior 



facet. The projections of this straight line in the representations 
of the cube, figs. 1 and 1", are respectively the lines, a c and a e', 
lying each at an angle of 45° with the base line. Thus, in gen- 
eral, in our drawings the objects are supposed to receive the light 
in the direction of the arrows, R and r', in fig. 8, according as the 
projection is in the vertical or horizontal plane. 

102. We must observe, that the actual inclination of the straight 
line thus adopted, is not that of 45-° with respect to either plane 
of projection ; the angle of inclination is in fact somewhat less, 
and may be determined by means of the diagram, fig. 9. For 
tliis purpose, it is necessary to suppose the perpendicular plane in 
winch the ray or line lies, as turned or folded down upon the ver- 
tical or horizontal plane, the turning axis being perpendicular to 
the base fine. Let us, in the first place, suppose the two pro- 
jections, r and r', of the ray, to meet in the point, o, in the base 
line, l t ; taking any point in this ray, as projected in the horizontal 
plane at a, and in the vertical at a', with the point, o, as a centre, 
and radius, a o, describe the arc, a c a', cutting the base line in the 
point, c ; through this point draw the perpendicular, b b', limited 
each way by the lines, a b, a' b', drawn parallel to the base line 
through the points, a, a . Joining o b and o b', the lines* thus 
obtained indicate the position and inclination of the ray, when 
folded down, as it were, on either plane of projection ; and on 
applying a protractor, it will be found that the actual angle of in- 
clination is one of 35° 16' nearly. Having, then, fixed upon the 
direction of the rays of light, which are, of course, supposed to 
be parallel amongst themselves, it will be easy to determine which 
part of an object is illiuninated, and which is in the shade. It 
will be perceived, for example, in figs. 1 and 1", that the illumi- 
nated portions are those represented by the lines, a.b and a d, on 
the one hand, and a' b' and a' f' on the other ; and that those in 
the shade are represented respectively by the lines, b c, c d, and 
b' e', f' e'. It must be observed, that according to this system, 
whatever part of the object is represented as illuminated in one 
projection, is equally so in the other; the shaded parts corre- 
sponding in a similar manner. What has just been said with 
reference to the cube, is equally applicable to all prisms or solids 
bounded by sharp definite outlines, care being taken to employ 
heavy shadow-lines only on the outlines of parts which are both 
promident and in the shade — such shadow-lines separating the 
facets winch are illuminated, from those winch are not. 

103. With regard to round bodies, the projections of the lateral 
portions being bounded by lines which should not indicate 
prominent and sharply defined edges, so full a shadow-line should 
not be employed as that forming the outline of a plane and pro- 
minent surface. Thus, in figs. 5, 6, and 7, the lines, b' e', s' b', 
and c' b' d', are not nearly as strong as the corresponding lines, b' e', 
in figs. 1 to 4. Nevertheless, these lines should not be as fine as 
those on the Ulurninated side of the object, but of a medium 
strength or thickness, to indicate the portion of the object which 
is in the shade. In other words, a sharp fine line indicates the 
fully illuminated outline, a fuller line the portion in shade,- and 
a shadow-line still stronger that portion which is both in the 
shade, and has a prominent sharply defined edge. The straight 
lines, f' e' and a' b', figs. 5 and 6, will necessarily be full shadow- 
lines, as representing the edges of planes entirely in the shade. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



27 



In the horizontal projection of the cylinder, fig. 5°, the illumi- 
nated portion corresponds to the semi-circle, adb, whilst that in 
the shade is the other semi-circle, a c b ; the points, a, b, of 
separation of the two halves, are obtained by drawing through 
the centre, o, a diameter, a b, perpendicular to the ray of light, 
d o, or by drawing a couple of tangents to the circle parallel 
to this ray. The straight line, a b, is inclined to the base line 
at an angle of 45°. Great care is necessary in producing the 
circular shadow-line, a c b, and the nibs of the drawing-pen should 
be gradually brought closer as the extremities, a and b, of the 
shadow-line are approached, so that it may gradually die away 
into the thickness of the illuminated line. By inclining the 
drawing-pen, or by pressing it sideways against the paper, the 
desired effect may be produced ; the exact method, however, being 
obtained rather by practice than by following any particular in- 
structions. A very good effect may also, in some instances, be 
produced, by first drawing the entire circle with the fine line, and 
then retracing the part to be shadow-lined with a centre slightly 
to one side of the first centre, and repeating this until the desired 
strength of the shadow-line is obtained. 

104. In the plan of a cone, fig. 6", the part in the shade is always 
less than the part illuminated; but it requires an especial con- 
struction, which will be found in the chapter treating of Shadows, 
for the determination of the lines of separation, s e ; and it is sel- 
dom that such extreme nicety is observed in outline drawings, the 
shadow-line of the plan of the cone being generally made the 
same as that of a cylinder, or perhaps a little less, according to 
the judgment of the artist. Yet, if the height of the cone be 
less than the radius of the base, the whole conical surface will be 
illuminated, and consequently its outline should have no shadow- 
line. 

105. In explanation of the motives which have guided us in 
the adoption of the diagonal of a cube, as projected in the lines, 
K, r', fig. 8, as the direction of the rays of light, in preference to 
the other systems proposed, wo shall proceed to point out some 
of the inconveniences attending the latter. 

In the first placo it must be observed, that if we adopt, as the 
direction of the rays of light, the diagonals projected in a' e' and 
d b, figs. 1 and 1°, that part of the object which is represented in 
the plan as illuminated, does not correspond with the part repre- 
sented as illuminated in the elevation : in such case, the shadow- 
lines would be A b and b c in the horizontal projection, and f' e', 
d' e' in the vertical, so that there is no distinction made between 
the plan and the elevation; whereas, according to the system 
adopted by us, it is at first sight apparent which is the plan, and 
which the elevation, from the mere shadow-fines, which are in tho 
latter at the lower parts of the object; whilst, in the former, they 
are, on the contrary, at the upper parts. It is not natural, more- 
over, to suppose, that in the representation of any object, tho light 
can be made to come as it were from behind the object, for in that 
case the side nearest the spectator would evidently bo in tho 
shade; and yet it is only on such a supposition that the projections 
of the ray of light can be such as d b and a' e'. Thus a double 
inconvenience may bo urged against this system. 

If, on the other hand, the rays of light are supposed to be per- 
pendicular to either plane, such confusion will result as to render 



it impossible to ascertain, by any reference to .the shadow-lines 
what is, or what is not, illuminated, and thus the object of employ- 
ing shadow-lines would be lost sight of. Thus let us suppose, for 
example, that the light is perpendicular to the vertical plane, 
whence it follows that the whole of the anterior facet, figs. 1 to 4, 
is fully illuminated ; but,~at the same time, all the facets perpen- 
dicular to the vertical plane are equally in the shade, and it would 
consequently be necessary to use shadow-lines all round, or else not 
at all ; and whichever plan was adopted, would be quite unintelligi- 
ble. Besides this, it is unnatural to suppose that the spectator 
should place himself between the light and the object. Indeed, it 
is unquestionable that the most appropriate direction to be given to 
the ray of light is as before stated, that of the diagonal of a cube, 
of which the facets are respectively parallel to the two planes of 
projection; and the projections of this diagonal are, consequently, 
inclined to the base line at an angle of 45°, but proceeding from 
above in the vertical projection, and from below in the horizontal 
projection, as shown by the arrows, e and k.', fig. 8. 



projections op grooved or fluted cylinders 
and Ratchet wheels. 

PLATE VIII. 

106. The various diagrams in this plate are designed principally 
with the view of making the student practically conversant with 
the construction of the projections of objects; and, besides teach- 
ing him how to delineate their external contours, to enable him to 
represent them in section, that their internal structure may also be 
recorded on the drawing. 

Figs. 1 and 1" are, respectively, the plan and elevation of a 
right cylinder, which is grooved on its entire external surface. The 
grooves on one-half of the circumference are supposed to be 
pointed, being formed by isosceles triangles of regular dimen 
sions, and may represent the rollers used in flax machinery, in 
apparatus for preparing food for animals, and in many other 
machines. The other half of the circumference is formed into 
square or rectangular grooves, the lateral faces of which are either 
parallel to the centre lines which radiate from the centre, or are 
themselves radiating. 

107. To construct tho horizontal projection of this cylinder, 
that is, as seen from above, wo must first ascertain how many 
grooves are contained in tho whole circumference ; then drawing a 
circle with a radius, a o, which should always be greater than that 
of the given cylinder, divide it into twice as many equal parts as 
there are grooves. If the student will refer back to tho section 
treating of linear drawing, illustrated in Plate I., he will. find simple 
methods of dividing circles into 2, 8, 4, 6, 8, and 12 equal parts, 
and, further, of subdividing these. Thus, as the cylinder, tig. 1, 
contains 24 grooves, its circumference must bo divided into 48 equal 
parts. To obtain these, begin by drawing two diameters, a b. C P. 
perpendicular to each other; then, from each extremity, mark off the 
length of tho radius, ao, thus obtaining the tour points numbered 
8 on ono side, and the points numbered 4 on the other — making, 
with the points of intersection of the two diameters witll tho cir- 
cumference, in all, 12 points. It remains simply to bisect each 
space, as a — 4, n — 4, or 4 — 8. &c, a< well Ri I he !( saer ipacei 



28 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



thus found; this will give the 48 divisions required. Through 
tho points of division draw a series of radii, which will divide 
the inner circle described, with the radius, o f, into the same 
number of equal parts. The depth of the grooves is limited 
by the circle described with the radius, o e, whilst the outside 
of the intervening ridges is denned by the circle of the radius, o F. 
All the operations which we have so far indicated, are called for 
in the construction of both the triangular and rectangular grooves. 
In proceeding, we must, in the former case, join the points of in- 
tersect! mi, a, b, c, d, which are in each circumference alternately ; 
whilst ir the latter case we require no fresh lines, but have simply 
to ink in alternate portions of the two circles, as well as the radial 
fines joining these. 

108. To draw the vertical projection, fig. 1°, it is necessary that 
the depth should be given, say m' n' = 54. First set out the 
two horizontals, m' p', n' q', limiting the depth of the figure ; then, 
to obtain the projection of the grooves and ridges, square over 
each of the points, e, f, g, h, &c, and ^draw parallels through 
the pomts thus found in fig. I", as e',/', g 1 , h'. This completes 
the elevation, and represents the whole exterior of that part of the 
cylinder below the horizontal, m p. 

109. It has already been observed, that two projections are not 
always sufficient to form a complete representation of an object ; 
thus it will be evident, from a consideration of figs. 1 and 1", that 
a third view is necessary to explain the interior of the cylinder. 
The radius, og = 42, of the central circular opening, is not ap- 
parent in fig. 1", it is only to be found in the plan ; whereas we 
have already seen, that, to determine its exact position, it should 
be represented in two projections. From figs. 1 and 1", it is im- 
possible to see if the opening exists throughout the depth of the 
cylinder, or if its radius be the same down to the bottom ; and the 
same remark applies to the key-way. In consequence of this, it 
is expedient to draw the object as sectioned — for example, through 
the centre line, M p — by a plane parallel to the projection. Such 
a section is represented in fig. 1* ; and from it, it is at once manifest 
that the central eye or opening, as well as the key-way, extend 
equally throughout the depth of the cylinder. The outline of 
these parts is formed by the verticals drawn through the points, 
g', m', 7?', h', obtained by squaring over the corresponding points, 
g, m, n, h, in the plan. This view also shows that the external 
grooves are equal throughout their depth, as indicated by the ver- 
ticals drawn through m', l', e', p'. When the outlines of the in- 
terior of an object are few and simple, they may be indicated 
in an elevation, such as l", by dotted lines. But if the outlines are 
numerous or complex, too great a confusion would result from 
this method ; and it is far better, in such case, to give a sectional 
view. 

That portion of the solid mass of the cylinder, through which 
the sectional plane passes, is indicated in fig. I 6 , by a flat-tinted 
shading, so as to distinguish it from the parts which the plane 
does not meet: this is the plan generally adopted to show the 
parts in section ; the strength of the shade, or sectioning, is varied 
according to the nature of the material. Thus, for cast-iron, a 
darker shade is used, whilst a lighter one indicates wood or stone ; 
and as an example of this distinctive use of various degrees of 
shade, we have to point out that the sectioning in fig. I 6 , indicates 



the object to be made of copper, whilst tha,t m fig. 2 6 corresponds 
to cast-iron, and in fig. 3* to wood or masonry. 

110. It must be observed, that the section lines, of whatever 
description they may be, are always inclined at an angle of 45° 
with the base line ; this is to distinguish the sectioning from flat 
tints frequently employed in elevations, to show that one surface is 
less prominent than another: this latter flat-tinting is generally 
produced by perpendicular or horizontal lines. The line, f j', which 
indicates the base of the internal cylinder, g m h, should not be 
a shadow-line equal in strength to the bases of the sectional parts, 
for the latter are more prominent. This point is seldom attended 
to as it should be; greater beauty and effect, however, would 
result if it were. This remark applies equally to all projections 
of objects, of which one portion is more prominent than another. 
Thus, in figs. 1°, 2", 3°, the vertical lines passing through f are 
considerably more pronounced than those passing through p' q', 
and lying in a posterior plane. It is the more important to observe 
these distinctions in representations of complex objects, so as to 
assist as much as possible a comprehension of the drawing. After 
the preceding consideration of fig. 1 on this plate, figs. 2 and 3, 
representing ratchet wheels and fluted cylinders, will be quite 
intelligible to the student ; such operations as are additional, being 
rendered quite obvious by the views themselves. 



THE ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
PLATE IX. 

111. Columns of the different orders of architecture are fre- 
quently employed in buildings, and also in mechanical constructions, 
as supports, where it is desired to combine elegance with strength. 
The ancient orders of architecture number five ;* as, 

1. The Tuscan. 

2. The Doric. 

3. The Ionic. 

4. The Corinthian. 

5. The Composite. 

A sixth order is sometimes met with, denominated the Poestum- 
Doric. 

112. Each order of architecture comprises three principal 
parts : the pedestal, the column, and the entablature. In all the 
orders, the pedestal is a third of the length of the shaft in height, 
and the depth of the entablature is a fourth of the shaft. The 
proportion between the diameter and height of the column varies 
in each order. The height of the Tuscan column is seven times 
the diameter at the lowest part ; the Doric, eight times ; the Ionic, 
nine times; the Corinthian and Composite, ten times. The 
pedestal is frequently altogether dispensed with. All the differ- 
ent parts, in the various orders, bear some proportion to a module, 
which is half the diameter of the lower part of the column. This 
module may be termed, the unit of proportion. It is divided 

* We have adhered to the classification wnich, from being of more ancient 
date, is supported by superior authority ; but we do not profess, in this work, to 
decide which carries more reason with it. Reason frequently runs counter \a 
authority Modern architects say there are only three orders — the first comprising 
Ancient, Modern, and Tuscan Doric ; the second, Greek ; Roman, and Modern 
Ionic ; and the third, Corinthian and Composite. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



29 



into 12 parts, in the Tuscan and Doric orders; and into 18 parts, 
in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. The whole height of 
the Tuscan order is 22 modules 2 parts, apportioned as follows : — 
The column is 14 modules; the pedestal, 4 modules 8 parts ; and 
the entablature, 3 modules 6 parts. The whole height of the 
Doric order is 25 modules 4 parts — the column being 16 modules; 
the pedestal, 5 modules 4 parts ; and the entablature, 4 modules. 
The whole height of the Ionic order is 28 modules 9 parts — the 
pedestal, 6 modules ; the column, 18 modules ; and the entablature, 
4 modules 9 parts. The whole height of the Corinthian and 
Composite orders is 31 modules 12 parts — of which 6 modules 12 
parts form the pedestal, 20 modules the column, and 5 modules 
the entablature. 

As we do not propose to treat especially of architecture, we 
have not given drawings of all the various orders, but have con- 
fined ourselves to the Tuscan, as being the simplest, as well as the 
one more generally adopted in the construction of machinery. 
At the end of this Chapter, will be found tables of the dimensions 
of the various components of the Tuscan order, and we also there 
give a similar table for the Doric order. 

OUTLINE OF THE TUSCAN ORDER. 

113. The whole height being given, as in n, the proportions of 
the different parts may always be determined. Let this height 
be, for example, 4 metres 272 millimetres, fig. 7. First, divide it 
into 19 equal parts, then take 4 such parts for the height of the 
pedestal, 12 for that of the column, and the remaining 3 for the 
entablature. Then, according to the order which it is intended to 
follow, the height, rn n, of the column, is divided into 7, 8, 9, or 10 
equal parts, and the diameter of the lower part of the column will 
be equal to one of these divisions : thus, in the Tuscan order, the 
diameter, a b, is \ of the height, m n ; the half of this diameter, 
or the radius of the shaft, is the unit of proportional measurement, 
called the module, and with which all the components of the order 
are measured : it follows then, that in tlie Tuscan order this mo- 
dule is -Jj- of the height of the column, in the Doric Jg-, in the 
Ionic J-j, and -Jj- in the Coiinthian and Composite. 

114. The three members of an order are each subdivided into 
three divisions. Thus the Pedestal is composed of the Socle, 
or lower Plinth, a ; of the Dado, b ; and Cornice, c : the column 
consists of the Base, or Plinth, d ; the Shaft, e ; and the Capital, f ; 
and in the entablature are the Architrave, g ; the Frieze, h ; and 
the Cornice, l 

115. Before proceeding to delineate these different parts, and 
the mouldings with which they aro ornamented, it is expedient to 
set off a scale of modules, determined in the manner just stated, 
the module being, of course, subdivided into 12 equal parts. 

To make the mouldings and various details more intelligible, 
we have drawn the various portions of the order, separately, to a 
larger scale. Thus the socle and pedestal of the column are repre- 
sented in elevation in fig. 2, and in plan in fig, 3, to a scale '2\ times 
that of the complete view, fig. 1, and the module will, of course, be 
proportionately larger. All the numbers indicated on these figures, 
give the exact measurements of each part and each moulding, so 
that they may be drawn in perfect accordance with the scale given. 
It conduces considerably to the symmetry and exactitude of the 



drawing, to set off all the measurements from the axis or centre 
line, c d. The module being but an arbitrary measurement, it is 
necessary, in practically carrying out any design, to ascertain the 
different measures in metres and parts of metres; and for this 
reason we have given additional scales in metres, to correspond to 
those in modules ; and we have also expressed in millimetres, on 
each figure, the measurements of the various details, placing the 
metrical in juxtaposition with the modular ones. And, to give a 
distinct idea as to the degrees of prominence or relief of the 
various members, a part of the elevation is shown as sectioned 
by a plane passing through the axis of the shaft, this part being 
sufficiently distinguishable from the sectional flat-tinting. In 
the horizontal projection, fig. 3, are also represented portions of 
sections in two different planes, one being at the height of the 
line, 5 — 6, and the other at that of 7 — 8. The first shows that the 
shaft is round, as well as the fillet, /, and the torus, g, whilst the 
base, h, and cornice, i j, are square : the second section shows, 
in a similar manner, that the dado, b, the socle, a, and its fillet, p, 
are square. The flat-tintings sufficiently indicate the parts ia 
section. 

Fig. 4 represents the entablature and the capital of the column 
in elevation and in section. Fig. 5 is a horizontal section of the 
column with its capital, as it were inverted, and is supposed to be 
half through the line, 1 — 2, and half through 3 — 4. The whole 
is what is termed a false section, the parts in section being in 
parallel, but not identical planes. The different measurements 
are given in modules and metres, as in the other figures ; they 
indicate the respective distances from the axis, c' d'. 

116. The execution of this design offers little or no difficulty; 
but all the operations required, as well as the parts to which the 
measurements apply, are carefully indicated. It is, therefore, 
unnecessary to enter into further details, except as far as relates 
to such parts as involve some peculiarity ; the shaft of the column, 
for example, and one or two of the mouldings. 

Referring, in the first place, to the column, it is to be observed 
that it is customary to make the shaft cylindrical for one third of 
the height, that is, of equal diameter throughout that extent : 
above that point, however, it diminishes gradually in diameter up 
to the capital. This taper is not regular throughout, being 
scarcely perceptible at the lower part, and becoming more and 
more convergent towards the top. Its contour is consequently a 
curve, instead of a straight line. This curvature constitutes what 
is termed the entasis, and is employed to correct the apparent 
narrowness of a rectilinear column at the middle. Such defects e 
appearance only takes place when the cylindrical piece, or column, 
is between a pedestal and an entablature having plane surfaces, 
A cylinder, or sphere, always seems to occupy less space than a 
plane surface equal to its greatest section. Thus the outline of ■ 
cylinder or sphere, appears to grow less when it ia shaded. Now, 
where the column is in contact with the plane surface of the pe- 
destal or entablature, it cannot appear less in proportion, the 
proximity of the latter correcting such appearance, whilst the 

Influence is less fell at the central part, which is furthest from the 

pedestal and entablature, A true cylinder, therefore, in such 
position, appears to lie thinner at the middle, and this is corrected 

h\ the entasis, or curved contour. 



30 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



But many authorities consider this a fastidious nicety, and it 
is frequently disregarded, particularly in designing short thick 
columns for machinery, and also where the other extreme is reached, 
and th<- columns become mere rods. 

What may be termed the mechanical entasis, is, moreover, em- 
ployed in beams, levers, and connecting-rods of all descriptions ; 
the object of this convexity, and increased width in the middle 
part, in such cases, being to obtain strength and rigidity, whilst it 
undoubtedly adds to the beauty of form. 

To determine the amount of the entasis in the Tuscan column, 
divide the line, c d, fig. 6, which represents two-thirds the height 
of the shaft, into any number of equal parts, say six. With the 
point, d, as centre, and a radius, d e, equal to one module, draw 
an arc of a circle ; next, having made c v equal to 9| parts, draw 
through v a line, v x, parallel to the axis, c d*, this parallel will 
cut the arc in the point, x ; divide the arc, e x, into six equal parts, 
and then through the points, 1, 2, 3, &c, thus obtained, draw par- 
allels to the axis. These parallels will intersect the horizontal 
lines drawn through the divisions, q, r, s, I, of the axis, respectively, 
in the points, 1', 2', 3', &c, and through these will pass the re- 
quired curve, forming the contour of the shaft. This curve, being 
symmetrically reproduced on the opposite side of the axis, c d, will 
complete the outline of the shaft. 

In the entablature and pedestal will be found two similar 
mouldings, termed cymatia ; they are both examples of the cyma 
reversa, discussed in reference to Plate 3. The slight peculiarities 
in their construction, will be easily understood from the enlarged 
view, fig. 8. The quarter rounds and accompanying minor mould- 
.ngs belonging to the capital and entablature, are also represented 
separately, and on a larger scale, in figs. 9 and 10. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

THE MEASUREMENT OF SOLIDS. 

117. We have already seen that the volume or solidity of a body, 
is the extent of space embraced by its three dimensions — length, 



width, and height ; the last of these being frequently termed depth, 
or thickness. The volume of a solid is determined when it is 
ascertained what relation it bears to, or how many times it contains, 
any cube which is adopted as the unit of the measurement. Such 
a unit is the cubic metre, just as a square metre is employed to 
measure surface, and a linear metre length. 

The subdivisions of the cubic metre are the cubic decimetre, 
the cubic centimetre, and the cubic millimetre. The relations 
these bear' to the linear subdivisions will be obvious from the 
following comparison. 

Whilst 1 metre = 10 decimetres = 100 centimetres = 1000 
millim etres. 

1 Cubic metre = (lO*- x 10 d x lO 1 =) 1000 cubic deci- 
metres = (lOO - X 100 c - X 100°- =) 1,000,000 cubic centimetres 
= ( 1000 m / m X 1000 m / m X 1000 m / m = ) 1,000,000,000, cubic 
millimetres ; consequently, 1 cubic decimetre = -001 or y^ cubic 
metre, the cubic centimetre = '0000001 or Y 6t>l6i>o cu ^ c metre. 

Similarly, we measure volume by cubic yards, feet, or inches, just 
as we measure surface by square, and length by linear yards, feet, 
and inches. A cubic foot is ^ of a cubic yard, for — 

1 cubic foot = | yard x I yard X J yard = J y P 1 ^ ; 
and an inch, or 

yL foot X ^ foot x T2 foot = ttW foot - 

119. Parallelopipeds. — The volume of a parallelopiped is equal 
to the product of its base multiplied into its height. 

Example.— Fig. [g. PL 7. Let A F = 2 feet, F E = 1-4 feet, 
and F H = 1-4 feet. Then the base = 1-4 X 1*4 = 1-96, and 
1-96 X2 = 3-92 cubic feet; or more simply, 1-4 X 1*4 X 2 = 
3'92 c. ft. A cube itself, having all its dimensions equal — its 
volume is expressed by the third power of the measure of one of 
its sides; that is, by the product of one side three times into 
itself. 

Thus the cube, fig. A, of which one side measures, say 1*4 
feet, contains 1-4 x 1*4 x 1-4, or 1-4 3 = 2-744 cubic feet. 

In general, the volume of a right prism, whatever be its base, is 
equal to the product of the base into the height. 



TABLE OF SURFACES, AND VOLUMES OF REGULAR FOLYHEDRA. 

Humbeb of Sides. Name. Surface. Volume 

4 Tetrahedron, 1-7820508 -1178519 

6 Hexahedron, or Cube, 6-0000000 1-0000000 

8 Octahedron, 3-4641016 -4714045 

12 Dodecahedron, 20-6457788 7-6631189 

20 Icosahedron, 8-6602540 2-1816950 



120. Pyramids. — The volume of a polygonal pyramid is equal 
to its base multiplied into a third of its height. 

Example.— Let S O, fig. © = 2 inches, A B and A D each = 
1-4 inches; the cubic contents of the pyramid are — 

1'4 x 1*4 x 2 

2 = T3066 cubic inches. 

Thus the volume of a pyramid is one-third of that of a right 
prism, having an equal base, and being of the same height, 

The volume of a truncated pyramid, with parallel bases, is 



equal to the product of a third of the height, into the sum of the 
two bases added to the square root of their product. 

Thus, if V represent the volume of a truncated pyramid, of 
which the height, H, = 3 feet, the lower base, B, = 6 square feet^ 
the upper, B', = 4 square feet; we have — 

V = j x (B + B' + YBB') = 
3 



i s f. + 4 s. f. + V6 x 4) = 14-898 sq. feet 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



31 



In practice, when there is little difference between the areas of 

the bases, a close approximation to the volume is obtained by 

taking the half of the sum of the bases, multiplied into the 

height. Thus, with the preceding data, we have 

/B 4. B'\ 
V = H X ( — -jj — ) = 15 sq. ft. 

121. Cylinders. — The cubic contents of any cylinder, as fig. g, 
is equal to the product of the base into the height. Thus, in the 
case of a cylinder of a circular base, we have B = rt R 2 (72) ;* 
consequently, the volume, V, = n R 2 X H. 

First Example. — What is the volume of a cast-iron cylinder, 
of which the radius, R, = 20 inches, and the length, H, = 108 
inches ? 

V = 3-1416 X 20 2 X 108 = 135,717 cubic inches. 
The volume may also be derived from the diameter of the cylin- 
der, in which case we have — 

rtD 2 



-XH; or, 

135,717 cubic in. 



4 
V = -7854 X 40 2 X 108 
The convex surface of a right cylinder, when developed, is equal 
to the area of a rectangle, having for base the rectilinear develop- 
ment of the circumference, and for height that of the cylinder. 
It is therefore obtained by multiplying the circumference into 
the height or length. With the data of the preceding case, the 
convex surface is expressed by the formula — 

S = 2rt R X H, or rt D XH= 3-1416 X 40 X 108 = 
13,571-7 cubic inches. 
The volume of a hollow cylinder is equal to the difference between 
that of a solid cylinder of the same external radius, and that of 
one whose radius is equal to the internal radius of the hollow 
cylinder. Or, it is equal to the product of the sectional area into 
the height, such area being equal to the difference between two 
circles of the external and internal radius, respectively. 

Example. — It is required to find the volume, V, and the internal 
surface, S', of a steam-engine cylinder, including its top and bottom 
flanges in the volume. Let the following be the dimensions : — 
External diameter, D, = 56 inches ; internal diameter, D', = 50 
inches; length or height, H, = 120 inches; external projection 
of the flanges, F, = 5 inches, and their thickness, E, = 4 inches. 
Then, for the internal surface, we have — 

S' = 3-1416 x 50 x 120 = 18,850 sq. in. 

For the volume of the body of the cylinder, we have — ■ 

V'=-^-t- —^-r~ x 120= (-7854 x 56 2 )— (-7854 x 50 3 ) x 

120 = 60,000 cubic inches. 
And for the additional volume of the flanges — 

v „ _ h (56 + 10) 2 _ rt56 2 x 4 x 2 = (-7854 X 66 2 ) — 
4 4 

(-7854 x 56 2 ) x 8 = 7666 cubic inches. 
Whence the whole volume — 

V + V" = 67,666 cubic inches. 



• When we wish to refer the studont to any rule or principlo already Riven, 
we do so by means of the number of tho paragraph containing such rulo or princi- 
ple. In the present instance, what is referred to will bo found at page 20. 



122. Cones. — The cubic content of a cone is equal to the pro- 
duct of its base into a third of its height; or, 

V = B x *L 
3 

In the right cone, fig. [p 1 , of which the base is circular— 



Vrt = R 2 x —. 
3 



rtD 2 x H ; 
4 3 



and as n, or 3-1416 -=- (4 x 3) = -2618, the formula resolves 
itself into — 

V = -2618 x D 2 x H. 

Example. — What is the volume of a right cone, of which the 
height, H, = 24 inches, and the diameter of the base, or D, = 
17 inches ? 

We have — 

V=-2618 x 17 2 x 24= 1816 cubic inches. 

As we shall demonstrate, at a more advanced stage, the 
development of the convex surface of a right cone is equal to the 
sector of a circle, of which the radius is the generatrix, and the 
arc the circumference of the base of the cone — consequently, the 
conical surface is equal to the product of the circumference of 
the base into the half of the generatrix : whence is derived the 
following formula : — 

S = 2rtR x-2-=rtR x G. 

With the data of the foregoing example, and allowiDg the 
generatrix to be equal to 25| inches, we have— 

S == 3-1416 x 8-5 x 25-5 = 681 cubic inches. 

123. Frustum of a cone. — The volume of the frustum of a cone 
may be obtained in the same manner as that of the truncated 
pyramid (120). The convex surface of a truncated cone is equal 
to the product of half the generatrix of the frustum into the sum 
of the circumferences of the bases, and is expressed in the follow- 
ing formula : 

S =- x 2rt (R + R') = L x rt (R + R'). 
Jt 

Example. — Let the length, L, of the generatrix of the conic 

frustum, = 14 inches; the radius, R, of the lower base, = 8-5 

inches ; the radius, R', of the upper base, = 3-8 inches ; then tho 

convex surface— 

S = 14 x 3-1416, x (8-5 -f 3-8) = 54 square. inches. 

124. Sphere. — The volume of a sphere may bo ascertained a.s 
soon as its radius is known. Its surface is equal to four times 
that of a circle of equal diameter. This is expressed by the 
formula; — > 

S = 4rt R a = rt D a = 3-1416 x D 2 , 

or tho square of tho diameter multiplied by 3-1416. 

Tho volumo is equal to tho product of the surface into one-third 
of tho radius, as in the formula — 

V = 4rt R 2 x ^=4 * t R 3 , or V = 4188 x R 3 ; 
3 o 

or, if wo employ the diametral ratio — 

V = * D 3 x ^- = -5236 x D J . 
6 



32 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Example. — We would know what is tho surface and the volume 
of a sphere, of which the diameter measures 25 inches. 
The surface — 

S= 25 2 X 31416 = 1963-5 sq. inches. 
The volume — 

V = -5236 X 25 3 = 8181-25 cubic inches. 
To find the radius or diameter of a sphere, of which the volume 
is known, it is sufficient to invert the preceding operations, the 
formulas becoming as follows — 

3 V V 



R 3 



4rt — 4-188 



whence, 
Similarly, 

whence, 



R =\/ 



V 

4-188 



D 3 = 



V 

•5236' 



D 



-^ 



V 

5236' 



which, with the preceding data, gives R = 12-5 inches, and D = 
25 inches. 

The radius is derived from the surface by means of the follow- 
ing formula: — 

S 



R 2 = 



4X3-1416 



whence, 



R 



•yf- 



S 



12-5664 



D 2 = 



S 
3-1416' 



whence, 

125. Spheric sectors, segments, and zones. — The surface of a 
zone or spheric segment, is equal to the product of the circum- 
ference of a circle of the sphere, into the height of the zone or 
segment; or, 

S = 2rt R X H. 

Example. — The height, H, of a spheric segment being 1-5 
inches, and the radius, R, of the sphere, 7 - 5 inches, the surface — 

S = 2 X 3-1416 X 7-5 X l'fi = 70-686 sq. inches. 

The volume of a spheric sector is equal to the product of the sur- 
face of its spherical base, into one-third the radius of the sphere 
of which it is a portion. 

The corresponding formula is therefore— 

R 2 
V = 2rtRxHx - = -rtX R 2 H= 2094 x R 2 x H. 

Example. — The volume of the spheric sector, whose spheric 
base is equal to the surface considered in the previous example, is 

V = 2-094 x 7-5 2 X l'S = 176-68 cubic inches. 
The volume of a spheric segment is equal to the product of 
the are of the circle of which the chord is radius, into one-sixth 
of the height of the segment ; or, 
H 



V = rt : 



x — = -5296 X r 2 x H. 

D 



Example. — Let r = 6 - 5 inches, and H 1-5 inches; the then 
volume — ■ 

V = -5296 x 6-5 2 x l'fi = 33-56 cubic inches. 

The volume of a spheric ungula is equal to the product of the 
gore, which is its base, into a third of the radius. 
The formula is — 

V = -A x R 2 ; 
3 

where A = the area of the gore. 

The volume of a zonie segment is equal to half the sum of 
its bases, multiplied by its height, plus the volume of a sphere 
of which that height is the diameter ; whence the formula — 

126. Observations. — The volumes of spheres are proportionaj 
to the cubes of their radii, or diameters. Let V = 14-137 
cubic inches, and v = 4-188 cubic inches. It will be found 
that the respective radii are — 



R = 



and 



. 3 / 14 " 137 - l.K. 

3 /ZjlT _ 3 /±T88 _ 
V 4-188 ~\ 4-188 ~ lj 



and, consequently, D = 3 and d = 2. 

The cubes of these numbers, that is, 27 and 8, have the same 
ratio to each other as the volumes given ; that is to say — 

27 : 8 :: 14-137 : 4-188. 

When of equal height, cylinders are to each other, as well as 
cones, as the squares of the radii of their bases. 

When of equal diameter, these solids are to each other as 
their heights. 

First, then, we have — 

V = « R 2 x H, and v = n r 2 x H ; 

whence, 

V : v :: R 2 : r 2 

And, secondly, 

V = h R 2 x H, and v = n R 2 x A ; 

whence, 

V : v :: H : ft. 

The volume of a sphere is to that of the circumscribed cylinder 
as 2 to 3. A sphere is said to be inscribed in a cylinder, when 
its diameter is equal to the height and diameter of the cylinder. 

The volume of an annular torus, or ring, is equal to the product 
of its section into the mean circumference. We have pointed 
out (90) that an annular torus is a solid, generated by the revolu- 
tion of a circle about an axis, situated in the plane of the circle, 
and at right angles to the plane of revolution. 

Let R be the radius of the generating circle, and r the distance 
of its centre from the axis, we have — 

V" = rt R 2 x 2rt r = 19-72 R 2 x r. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



3a 



PROPORTIONAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF AN ENTPRE ORDER. 
THE (MODERN) DORIC ORDER. 



Designations of the Members and Mouldings 
constituting the Order. 



£> 
< 

< 
Eh 

W 



Cornice, 



Frieze, 



Archxtrave,]^ 



3^ 

O 



Capital, , 



'Reglet, . . 

Cymatium, , 

Abacus, . 
Echinus, . 



Three Annulets, 
k Necking, 



Shaft, . . . 



Base,. . 



f Beading or Astragal, 
Cincture, 
Shaft Proper, .... 



f Fillet,. . 
J Beading, 
1 Torus, . 

[Plinth, . 



'Reglet, 

Cavetto, 

Fillet, 

Cymatium, 

Corona, 

Fillet, 

Mutules, 

Guttae, 

Fillet, , 

Cymatium, < 

Capitals of the Triglyphs, 



< 
Eh 
w 
W 
Q 
W 
Ph 



Cornice, . 



f Reglet, 

Quarter-Round, 

Fillet, 

Corona, .... 

Cymatium, . . . 



Dado, 



Base,. 



f Fillet, 

Beading, 

Cyma Reversa, . . . 

Plinth, 

_ Sub-Plinth or Socle, 



Total height of the Order, 



Measurements according to Vignoles, 
in Modules of 12 Parts. 



Amount of 

Projection 

from the Axis 

of the Shaft. 



M. P. 

2 10 

2 7 



6| 

6 
5 

4± 
2" 

H 

3 

1 

0* 
"I 
11 

10 



111 

10 



n 

2 



1U 
10^ 
10' 

1 

ni 

10 

l o 

i n 

1 2 
1 5 
1 5 



1 11 

1 lOf 
1 9| 



9 

6A 

<4 



1 5 



6 

7 

7 

84 

9 

9h 



Heights. 



M. P. 
1 



H 

4 
X 
I 

2| 

x 

2 

2 

2 

1 6 

2 
10 



1 6 



- 4 



1 6 



1 



1 



2 114 



13 10J 



1 



16 



x 

4 

H 
4 

l 2 

2 

21 
4" 



4 



10 



^ 5 4 



25 4 



Measures in Decimals 
The Module = 1. 



Amount of 

Projection 

from the 

Axis of the 

Shaft. 



2-833 
2.583 
2-542 
2-500 
2-417 
2-375 
2-167 
2-125 
1-250 
1-083 
1-042 
•959 
•917 

•833 

•959 
•833 



1-292 

1-271 

1-188 

1-167 

1-146 

•959 

•875 

•833 

1-000 
•959 
•833 

1-000 

1-104 
1-167 
1-417 
1-417 



1-917 
1-889 
1-806 
1-750 
1-5-1 2 
1-459 

1-417 

1-500 
1-683 
1-583 
1-708 
1-760 
1-792 



Heights. 



083 
250 
042 

125 

333 
042 

042 
209 
042 

166 

166. 

500 

167 

833 



V 1-500 



4-000 



1-500 



1-000 



•0421 

•083 

•209 
•209 

•124 

•333 

•083' 
•042 

13-875 



1-000 



► 16 000 



14-000 



•083] 
•083 I 
•334 [ 
•500 J 



1000 



•042 
•083 
•042 

•209 

•124 



4-000 

•042 ' 
■088 



■166 

•209 
•838 



•500 



4-000 



8-333 



16-000 



25-333 



34 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



PROPORTIONAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF AN ENTIRE ORDER. 



THE TUSC AN ORDER. 






pq 

< 

H 
55 
W 



Designations of the Members and Mouldings 
constituting the Order. 



Amount of 

Projection 

from the Axis 

of the Shaft. 



IB 
« 

o 
U 



Quarter-Round, . . 

Beading, 

Fillet, 

Larmier or Corona, 
Fillet 

Cymatium, 



Frieze, 

Architrave 



55 

a 

3 

o 



( Listel, 
' \ Facia, 



f Listel, 

Abacus, 

Echinus, or Quarter-Round, 

Fillet, 

Necking, 



w 



w 
pq 



Astrao-al 5 Beading, . . . 

A8tra 8» 1 . } Cincture,. . . 

Shaft Proper, 



(Fillet,. 
■J Torus, 
(Plinth, 





W 




o 


-1 


z 


<! 


« 


03 


o 
O 


K ^ 


D 


Q 




W 




Cm 


w 




to 




3 




L p=> 



( Listel, 
J Cymatiu 



j Listel, 

( Socle or Plinth, 



Total height of the Order, , 



Measurements according to Vignole 
in Modules of 12 Parts. 



M. P. 

2 3| 

2 6 

i m 

1 103 



1 
*1 



7i- 

10" 

9| 

93 



1 2i 

l H 

l l" 

10| 

9| 

11 
10* 

9| 
1 

l H 
i 4 
i 4 



1 5 

i 4 



6i 
8l 



Heights 



M. P. 
4 
1 



y l 4 



12 12 



2 

10 



3 6 



1 



M 



►14 



2 M2 



11 10J 



il 



1 



3 8 



3 8 j> 4 



1} 



22 2 



Measurements in Decimals. 
The Module = 1. 



Amount of 

Projection 

from the 

Axis of the 

Shaft. 



2-292 
2-000 
1-959 
1-875 
1-625 
1-125 
•833 

•792 

•959 
•792 



209 
125 

083 
875 
792 

917 
875 
792 
000 

125 
375 
375 



1-709 
1-667 
1-417 

1-375 

1-542 
1-709 



Heights. 



•3331 

•083 

•042 

•500 

•042 

•333 



1-333 



, 3 500 



1-167 1-167 



•167 
•833 



1-000 



•083"| 
•250 
•250 
•083 
•334 J 

•083' 
•042 

11-875 

•083 
•417 

•500 



r- 1-000 



12-000 



1-000 



y i4-ooo 



500 



•167 J 
I -333 f 

3-667 I 3-667 

•° 83 I .ftnn 
•417 \ 50 ° 



y 4-667 



22-167 



With the help of these tables we can easily determine the proper 
measurement for any member or moulding, in feet, inches, or 
metres, when the height of the whole order is given. For this 



• When two measurements are given, the first applies to the upper portion, the 
second to the lower. 



purpose the given height must be divided by the decimal measure- 
ment in the tables for the total given height ; the quotient is the 
measurement of the module proportioned to such height. Then 
that of any required member is found by multiplying this module 
into the decimal in the table corresponding to such member. 

First Example. — It is required to know what is the diameter of 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



35 



the lower part of the shaft according to the Tuscan order, the 

height of the entire order being 15 feet 

The height of the entire order being 22-167 when the module 

22-167 
= 1. we have 1& - =1-4778 the module, and 1-4778 x 2 = 2-9556 

feet, the diameter of the lower part of the shaft. 



Second Example. — What is the height of the socle or lower 
plinth according to the Tuscan order, supposing the module to be 
1-4778 feet? We have 1-4778 x -417 = -616. 

In like manner the dimensions of all the other details may be 
easily determined according to the Tuscan or Doric order. 



CHAPTER DJ. 
ON COLOURING SECTIONS, WITH APPLICATIONS. 



CONVENTIONAL COLOURS. 



127. Hitherto we have indicated the sectional portions of 
objects by means of linear flat-tinting. This is a very tedious 
process, whilst it demands a large amount of artistic skill — only 
obtainable by long practice — to enable the draughtsman to pro- 
duce pleasing and regular effects ; and although, by varying the 
strength or closeness of the lines, as we have already pointed out, 
it is possible to express approximately the nature of the material, 
yet the extent of such variation is extremely limited, and the dis- 
tinction it gives is not sufficiently intelligible for all purposes. If, 
however, in place of such line sectioning, we substitute colours 
laid on with a brush, we at once obtain a means of rapidly tinting 
the sectional parts of an object, and also of distinctly pointing 
out the nature of the materials of which it is composed, however 
numerous and varied such materials may be. Such colours are 
generally adopted in geometrical drawings ; they are conventional 
— that is, certain colours are generally understood to indicate par- 
ticular materials. 

In Plate X. we give examples of the principal materials in use, 
with their several distinctive colours ; such as stone and brick, steel 
and cast-iron, copper and brass, wood and leather. We propose 
now to enter into some details of the composition of the various 
colours given in this plate. 



THE COMPOSITION OR MIXTURE OF COLOURS. 
PLATE X. 

128. Stone. — Fig. 1. This material is represented by a light dull 
yellow, which is obtained from Roman ochre, with a trifling addi- 
ton of China ink. 

129. Brick. — Fig. 2. A light red is employed for this material, 
and may be obtained from vermilion, which may sometimes be 
brightened by the addition of a little carmine. A pigment found 
in most colour-boxes, and termed Light Red, may also be used when 
great purity and brightness of tint is not wanted. It it, is desired 
to distinguish firebrick from the ordinary kind, since the former is 
lighter in colour and inclined to yellow, some gamboge must bo 
mixed with the vermilion, tho whole being laid on more faintly, 
In external views it is customary to indicate tho outlines of the 
individual bricks, but in the section of a mass of brickwork this 

•efinemont may be dispensed with, except in cases where it is 



intended to show the disposition or method of building up. Thus, 
in furnaces, as also in other structures, the strength depends greatly 
on the method of laying the bricks. When vermilion is used in 
combination with other colours, the colour should be constantly 
mixed up by. the brush — as, from its greater weight, the vermilion 
has a tendency to sink and separate itself from the others ; and if 
this is overlooked, a varying tint of unpleasing effect will be 
imparted to the object coloured. 

130. Steel or Wrought Iron. — Fig. 3. The colour by which these 
metals are expressed is obtained from pure Prussian blue laid on 
light — being lighter and perhaps brighter for steel than for wrought- 
iron. The Prussian blue generally met with in cakes has a con- 
siderable inclination to a greenish hue, arising from the gum with 
which it is made up. This defect may be considerably amended 
by the addition of a little carmine or crimson lake — the proper 
proportion depending on the taste of the artist. 

131. Cast-Iron. — Indigo is the colour employed for this metal ; 
the addition of a little carmine improves it. The colours termed 
Neutral Tint, or Payne's Gray, are frequently used in place of the 
above, and need no further mixture. They are not, however, so 
easy to work with, and do not produce so equable a tint. 

132. Lead and Tin are represented by similar means, the 
colour being rendered more dull and gray by the addition of China 
ink and carmine or lake. 

133. Copper. — Fig. 5. For this metal, pure carmine or crimson 
lake is proper. A more exact imitation of the reality may be ob- 
tained by the mixture, with either of these colours, of a little China 
ink or burnt sienna — the carmino or lake, of course, considerably 
predominating. 

134. Brass or Bronze. — Fig. 6. These are expressed by an orange 
colour, the former being the brighter of the two; burnt Roman 
ochre is the simplest pigment for producing this colour. Where, 
however, a very bright tint is desired, a mixture should be made 
of gamboge with a little vermilion — care being taken to keep it 
constantly agitated, as before recommended. Many draughtsmen 

use simple gamboge or other yellow. 

135. — Wood. — Fig. 7. It will be observable, from preceding 
examples, that the tints have been chosen with reference to the 

actual colours of the materials which lliev are intended to c\pre-- — 
carrying out the same principle, We should have a very wide range 
in the case of wood. The colour general]) used, however, is 



36 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



burnt umber or raw sienna ; b it the depth or strength with which 
it is laid on, may be considerably varied. It is usual to apply 
a light shade first, subsequently showing the graining with a 
darker tint, or perhaps with burnt sienna. These points are sus- 
ceptible of great variation, and very much must be left to the 
judgment of the artist. 

136. Leather, Vulcanized India-Rubber, and Gulla Percha. — 
Fig. 8. These are all represented by very similar tints. Leather 
by light, and gutta percha by dark sepia, whilst vulcanized india- 
rubber requires the addition of a 4ittle indigo to that colour. 

We may here remark, that if the student is unwilling to obtain 
an extensive stock of colours, he may content himself with merely 
a good blue, a yellow, and a red — say Prussian blue, gamboge or 
yellow ochre, and crimson lake. With these three, after a little 
experimental practice, he may produce all the various tints he 
needs; but, of course, with less readiness and facility than if Ms 
assortment were larger. 

137. The Manipulation of the Colours. — We have seen by what 
mixtures each tint may be obtained, and we shall proceed to give 
a few hints relative to their application. It may be imagined that 
it is an easy matter to colour a geometrical drawing — that is, simply 
to lay on the colours; but a little attention to the following 
observations will not be misplaced, as the student may thereby at 
once acquire that method which conduces so much to regularity 
and beauty of effect, and which it might otherwise require some 
practice to teach. 

The cake of colour should never be dipped in the water, as this 
causes the edges to crack and crumble off, wasting considerable 
quantities. Instead of this, a few drops of water should be first 
put in the saucer, or on the plate, and then the required quantity 
of colour rubbed down, the cake being wetted as little as is 
absolutely necessary. The strength or depth of the colour is 
obtained by proportioning the quantity of water, the whole being 
well mixed, to make the tint and shade' equable throughout. 
When large surfaces have to be covered by one shade, which it 
is desired to make a perfectly even flat tint, it is well to produce 
the required strength by a repetition of very light washes. These 
washes correct each other's defects, and altogether produce a soft 
and pleasing effect. This method should generally be employed 
by the beginner, as he will thereby more rapidly obtain the art of 
producing equable flat tints. The washes should not be applied 
before each preceding one is perfectly dry. When the drawing- 
paper is old, partially glazed, or does not take the colour well, 
its whole surface should receive a wash of water, in which a very 
small quantity of gum-arabica or alum has been dissolved. In 
proceeding to lay on the colour, care should be taken not to fill 
the brush too full, whilst, at the same time, it must be replenished 
before its contents are nearly expended, to avoid the difference in 
tint which would otherwise result. It is also necessary first to 
try the colour on a separate piece of paper, to be sure that it will 
produce the desired effect. It is a very common habit with 
water-colour artists to point the brush, and take off any super- 
fluous colour, by passing it between their lips. This is a very 
bad and disagreeable haoit, and should be altogether shunned. 
Not only may the colour which is thus taken into the mouth be 
injurious to health, but it is impossible, if this is done, to produce 



a fine even shade, for the least quantity of saliva which may be 
taken up by the brush has the effect of clouding and altogether 
spoiling the wash of colour on the paper. In place of tliis un. 
cleanly method, the artist should have a piece of blotting-paper at 
his side — the more absorbent the better. By passing the brush 
over this, any superfluous colour may be taken off, and as fine a 
point obtained as by any other means. The brush should not be 
passed more than once, if possible, over the same part of the draw- 
ing before it is dry ; and when the termination of a large shade is 
nearly reached, the brush should be almost entirely freed from the 
colour, otherwise the tint will be left darker at that part. Care 
should be taken to keep exactly to the outline ; and any space 
contained within definite outlines should be wholly covered at one 
operation, for if a portion is done, and then allowed to dry, or become 
aged, it will be almost impossible to complete the shade, without 
leaving a distinct mark at the junction of the two portions. Finally, 
to produce a regular and even appearance, the brush should not be 
overcharged, and the colour should be laid on as thin as possible ; 
for the time employed in more frequently replenishing the brush, 
because of its becoming sooner exhausted, will be amply repaid by 
the better result of the work under the artist's hands. 



CONTINUATION OF THE STUDY OF PROJECTIONS. 

THE USE OF SECTIONS DETAILS OF MACHINERY. 

PLATE XI. 

138. We have already shown, when treating of the illustrations 
in Plate VHL, that it is advisable to section, divide or cut 
through, various objects, so as to render then- internal organiza- 
tion clearly intelligible ; and we may now proceed to demonstrate, 
with the aid of sundry examples, brought together in Plate XL, 
that in particular cases sections are indispensable, and even more 
necessary, than external elevations. It is with this object that, 
in many of our geometrical drawings, we have given representa- 
tions of objects, cut or sectioned through then - axes or centres, so 
as to accustom the student to this description of projections, the 
importance and utility of which cannot be overrated. 

139. ^Footstep Bearing. — Figs. 1 and 1" are the representations, 
in plan and elevation, of a footstep, formed to receive the lower 
end of a vertical spindle or shaft. This footstep consists of seve- 
ral pieces, one contained within the other; and it is evidently 
impossible to say, from the external views, what their actual 
entire shape may be, although a part of each is seen in the hori- 
zontal projection, fig. 1. If, however, we suppose the whole to 
be divided by a vertical plane in the line, 1 — 2, fig. 1, we shall be 
enabled to form another vertical projection, fig. 1", showing the 
internal structure, and which is termed a vertical section, or sec- 
tional elevation. This figure shows, first, the thickness of tho 
external cup-piece, or box, a, as also the dimensions of the open- 
ing, a, which is made in its base, for the introduction of a pin, to 
raise the footstep proper, b, when necessary ; secondly, the thick- 
ness and internal depth of the footstep, b, as also the internal 
vertical grooves, b, which serve for the introduction of the key, 
c ; thirdly, the form and manner of adjustment of the centre-bit, 
c, which sustains the foot of the vertical spindle or shaft. This 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



37 



centre-bit, which, of course, should not turn with the spindle-foot, 
is prevented from doing so by means of the key, c, which fits 
into a cross groove in its under side, the key itself being held 
firmly by the grooves, b, into which its projecting ends are made 
to fit. Of these details, the cup-piece, a, is of cast-iron, the 
footstep, B, of gun-metal or brass, the centre-piece, c, of tempered 
steel, and the small key, c, of wrought-iron. Therefore, bearing 
in mind what has already been said, we may indicate these various 
materials in the sections, either by line-shading, of different 
strengths, as in the figure, or by means of colours, corresponding 
to those employed in Plate X. ; and we may here remark, that 
where line-sectioning is used, brass, gun-metal, or bronze, is 
frequently expressed by a series of lines, which are alternately 
full and dotted. There are, besides, many ways of varying the 
effect produced by line-shading. For example, the spaces between 
the lines may be alternately of different widths, or the lines may 
be alternately of different strengths. 

Strictly speaking, figs. 1 and 1' are all that are necessary for 
the representation of the object under discussion. The cup- 
piece, a, however, which is externally cylindrical, hus, at four 
points, diametrically opposite to each other, certain projecting 
rectangular plane surfaces, d, which are provided to receive the 
thrust of the screws which adjust the footstep accurately in the 
centre. The width of these facets is shown in the plan, fig. 1 
whilst their depth is obtainable from the elevation, fig. 1°. If, 
instead of these facets, d, being, as they are, tangential to the 
cylinder, a, they had projected, in the least, at their centres, their 
depth would necessarily have been given in the section, fig. I 6 , 
and in such case the elevation, fig. 1", might have been altogether 
dispensed with. Whilst referring to the representation of the 
projecting facets, in connection with the cylinder, a, we may 
remark, that when a cylinder is intersected by a plane, which is 
parallel to its axis, the line of intersection is always a straight 
line, as ef, figs. 1 and 1". 

1 40. Stuffing-box cover, or gland. — In pumps and steam-engine 
cylinders, the cover is furnished, at the opening through which 
the piston-rod passes, with a stuffing-box, to prevent leakage. 
The hemp, or other material used as packing, is contained in an 
enlargement of the piston-rod passage, and is tightly pressed down 
by a species of hollow bush with flanges, as reoresented in plan 
in fig. 2, and in elevation in fig. 2". In this instance, the neces- 
sity of a sectional view is still more obvious than in the case of 
the footstep already treated of. In the vertical section, fig. 2\ 
it is shown, that the internal diameter is not uniform throughout, 
and that there is a ring or ferule, b', let in at the lower part of 
the interior. The cylindrical opening, a, of the gland, coincides 
exactly with the diameter of the piston-rod ; the internal diameter 
of a portion, b, of the ring, b', is also the same. The part, c, 
however, comprised between these two, is greater in diameter, so 
as to lessen tho extent of surface in fiiclional contact with the 
piston-rod, and it also serves for the lodgmenl of lubricating 
matter. It is further discernible in the section, that the flanges 
or lugs, d, which project on either side of the upper portion of the 
gland, have each a cylindrical opening, e, throughout their whole 
depth. These are the holes for the bolts, which force down the 
gland, and secure it to the corresponding flanges, or lugs, on tin- 



stuffing-box. The annular hollowing out, /, at the upper and 
internal part of the gland, acts as a reservoir, into which the 
lubricating oil is first poured, and whence it gradually oozes 'nto 
the interior. The ring, b', is forcibly fitted into the bottom c 
the gland, and terminates below in a wedge, in the same manner 
as the gland itself, the double wedge jamming the packing against 
the piston-rod and the sides of the stuffing-box, and thus forming 
a steam-tight joint. The ring, b', is generally made of brass, 
both with a view to lessen the friction, and to its being replaced 
with facility when worn, without the necessity of renewing the 
whole gland. The latter is generally made of cast-iron, though 
the whole is sometimes made of brass or gun-metal. 

141. Spherical Joint. — In some cases, a locomotive receives water 
from its tender by means of pipes which are fitted with spherical 
joints, as a considerable play is necessary in consequence of the 
engine and tender not being rigidly connected together, and also to 
obviate any difficulty of attachment from the pipes in the locomo- 
tive not being exactly opposite to those in the tender. This species 
of joint, represented in plan and elevation in figs. 3 and 3", gives 
a free passage to the water, in whatever position, within certain 
limits, one part may be with respect to the other. For its con- 
struction to be thoroughly understood, the vertical section fig. 3 s is 
needed. This view, indeed, at once explains the various compo- 
nent parts, consisting — first, of a hollow sphere, a, of the same 
thickness as the pipe, b, of which it forms the prolongation ; and, 
second, of two hemispherical sockets, c, d, which embrace the ball, 
a, and which are firmly held together by bolts passing through 
lugs, a, a. When this species of joint is used of a small size, as at 
the junction of a gas chandelier with the ceiling, the two half- 
sockets are simply screwed together — this method, indeed, being 
adopted in many locomotives. It must be borne in mind, that our 
object in this work is simply to instruct .the student to accurately 
represent mechanical and other objects, and for this purpose wo 
employ both precept and example; but such examples do not 
necessarily comprise the latest and most improved or efficient 
forms. The half-socket, c, forms part of the continuation, e, of 
the feed-pipe, whilst the half-socket, D, is a detached piece, neces- 
sarily moveable, to allow of the introduction of the spherical part, 
a. This half-socket, d, is partially cut away at the lower part, 
and does not fit closely to the neck of the ball. This allows the 
pipe, b, to move to a slight extent from side to side in any direction ; 
and the upper end of the ball, a, is cut away to a corresponding 
extent, to prevent any diminution of the opening into the pipe, E, 
when the two portions are thus inclined to each other. The pipe, 
e, with its hall-socket, c, is an example of the combination of a 
cylinder with a sphere, and gives us occasion to observe, that the 
intersection formed by tho meeting or junction of these solids is 
always a circle in one projection, and a straight line in (he other. 
The subject of such intersections will be discussed more in detail 
in reference to Plate XIV. 

The sockets, c and D, are formed with four external lugs, or eye- 
pieces, a, for connection by bolts, as before stated. The curved 
Outlines of these lugS, which glide taugcntially inlo lhat of tho 
body of the socket, give rise to the solution of a problem which 
may he thus put : To draw iritli a given radius an air tangential to 
two given arcs. The solution is thus obtained: with tho centres, 



38 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



o, o, and radii equal to those of the respective arcs given, plus 
that of the required arc, describe arcs at about the position in 
Which the centres of the required arcs should be ; the intersections 
of these arcs will give the exact centres, as f, &c, and the lines 
joining f, with the centres, o, o. give the points of junction of the 
arc, g h, witli the other two. This spherical joint, which requires 
great accuracy of adjustment of the different parts, is generally 
cast iu brass, being finished by turning and grinding. 

142. Safely-Yalve. — To insure, as far as is practically possible, 
the safe and economical working of steam boilers, they are usually 
fitted with pressure gauges, level indicators, alarm whistles, and 
safety-valves. The object of the safety-valve is to give an outlet 
to the steam as soon as it reaches a greater pressure than has been 
determined on, and for which the valve is loaded. Figs. 4. 4*, and 
4\ respectively, represent a horizontal section, elevation, and ver- 
tical section of a safety-valve in common use. Tliis apparatus 
consists of two distinct parts : first, the cast-iron seat, a, per- 
manently fixed to the boiler-top by three or four bolts, the joint 
being made perfectly steam-tight by means of layers of canvas and 
cement ; second, the valve itself, b, which is sometimes cast-iron, 
sometimes brass. The valve-piece, B, is cast with a central spindle, 
c, hollowed out laterally into the form of a triangle with concave 
sides, for the purpose of giving a passage to the steam, and, at the 
same time, of lessening the extent of frictional contact of the spindle 
with the sides of the passage — some contact, however, being neces- 
sary for the guidance of the valve. The method of drawing the 
horizontal section of this valve-spindle is" similar to that given for 
fig. £\, Plate III. (34), with this difference, that it is drawn in an 
equilateral triangle, instead of in a square. The base of the valve- 
piece, or the part by which it rests on the seat, a, consists of a 
very narrow annular surface ; the upper edge of the seat is bevilled 
off internally and externally, so that the surface on which the valve- 
piece rests exactly coincides with that of the latter. The upper 
external surface of the valve-piece is hollowed out centrally to 
receive the point of the rod through which the weighted lever 
acts upon the valve ; this lever is adjusted and weighted to corre- 
spond with the pressure to which it is deemed safe to submit the 
boiler, so that, when this pressure is exceeded, the valve rises, 
and the steam blows off as long as relief is necessary. 

143. Equilibrium or Double-beat Valve. — Steam engines of large 
dimensions, such as those for pumping, met with in Cornwall, as well 
as marine engines, are often furnished with a species of double-beat 
or equilibrium valve in place of the ordinary D slide. An example 
of this description of valve is given in figs. 5, 5", and 5*. It possesses 
the property of giving a large extent of opening for the passage of 
the steam, with a very little traverse, and very little power is 
required to work the valve. The valve here represented consists of 
a fixed seat, a, of cast-iron or brass, and forming part of the valve 
chamber ; and a bell-shaped valve-piece, b, also in brass, fitted 
with a rod, c, by means of which it is moved. The contact of the 
valve with its seat is effected at two places, a and b, which are 
formed into accurate conical surfaces — one, a, being internal, and 
the other, 6, external. When the valve is closed, these surfaces coin- 
cide with similar ones on the seat, and when it is lifted, as in fig. 5*, 
two annular openings are simultaneously formed, thus giving a 
double exit to the steam — which issues from the upper opening, 



through the central part of the valve-piece, b. The rod or spindle 
of tins piece is fixed to a centre-piece cast in one with the valve- 
piece, and connected to it by four branches, c. The seat is simi- 
larly constructed. The external contour of this valve presents a 
series of undulations, involving the following problems in then 
delineation : — To draw the curved junction of the body of the valve 
with the upper cylindrical part. This is similar to the one treated 
of in reference to fig. 5, Plate IH. (37), and may easily be drawn 
with the assistance of the enlarged detail, fig. 5 C (Plate XI). Next, 
for the junction of the branch, c, with the more elevated boss, we 
require : To draw an arc tangent to a given straight line, and passing 
through a given point. The solution of this is extremely simple : 
we have merely to erect a perpendicular on the line, ef, fig. 5", r.l 
the point of contact, e, of the tangential arc ; to join e and the 
given point, g, through which the arc is to pass ; on the centre of 
the line, e g, to erect a perpendicular, h i, and the point, i, of inter- 
section of this line with the perpendicular, i e, will be the centre of 
the arc sought, eh g, and i e, the radius. 

The central leaves or feathers of the seat, A, are drawn accord- 
ing to a problem already discussed (38). 

The student will now see the imperative necessity of internal 
views or sections for the perfect intelligibility of the construction 
and action of various pieces of mechanism. With reference also 
to the examples collected together in this plate, a little considera- 
tion will show that the internal formation could not generally be 
sufficiently indicated by dotted lines ; for, besides the complication 
and confusion that would result from such a method, many such 
lines would confound themselves with full ones representing some 
external outline. 

We have not thought it necessary to enter more into detail 
respecting the methods of constructing the various outlines, being 
persuaded that the dotted indications we have given will be quite 
sufficient for the student who has advanced thus far, the more so 
since the requisite operations bear great resemblance to those 
treated of in reference to Plate HI. 



SIMPLE APPLICATIONS. 

SPINDLES, SHAFTS, COUPLINGS, WOODEN PATTERNS. 

PLATE XII. 

144. For the conveyance of mechanical action, under the form 
of rotatory, or partial rotatory motion, details, technically known 
as shafts or spindles, of wrought and cast-iron and wood, are used. 
Shafts of the latter description, namely, cast-iron and wood, are 
employed chiefly in hydraulic motors, water and wind mills, and 
in all machines where a great strain has to he transmitted, render- 
ing considerable bulk necessary. Of these two kinds, wooden 
shafts, being more economical, have been preferred in some cases, 
particularly when the length is great, since they will better sustain 
severe shocks. Wrought-iron shafts are employed for the trans- 
mission of motion in factories and workshops, and for the main 
paddle-shafts of steam-vessels. Wrought-iron has the advantage 
of being less brittle than cast, and of possessing greater tenacity 
and elasticity. 

145. Wooden Shaft.— Figs. 1, 4, 5, and 6, represent different 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



39 



projections of a woodeii shaft, such as is used for a water-wheel. 
Fig. 4 shows, on one side, a lateral elevation of the shaft, furnished 
with its iron ferules or collars, and its spindle ; and at the same 
time, on the other side, a vertical section, passing through the 
centre of the shaft, giving the ferules in section, but supposing 
the central spindle, with its feathers, to be in external elevation. 
Generally, in longitudinal sections of objects enclosing one or more 
pieces, the innermost or central piece should not be sectioned, 
unless it has some internal peculiarity — the object of a section be- 
ing to show and explain such peculiarity where it exists, and being 
quite unnecessary where the object is simply solid. In the same 
manner, it is not worth while sectioning the various minutiae of 
machinery, such as bolts and nuts, simple cylindrical shafts and 
rods and screws, unless these are constructed with some intrinsic 
peculiarity. 

Fig. 5 is a transverse section through the middle of the shaft, 
and merely shows that it is solid, and that it has the external con- 
tour of a regular octagon. Fig. 6 is an end view of the same 
shaft, showing the fitting of the spindle, with its feathers, into the 
socket and grooves, formed in the end of the shaft to receive 
them, and the binding of the whole together by the ferules or 
hoops. These views are what are required to determine all the 
various parts of the shaft. It manifestly consists, in fact, of a 
long prismatic beam of oak, a, of an octagonal section, and of 
which the extremities, b, are rounded, and slightly conical. The 
spindles, b, which are let into the ends, are each cast with four 
feathers, c, and a long tail-piece, d, uniting and strengthening 
them. Some engineers construct the spindles without the addi- 
tional tail-piece, d. Though this simplifies the thing considerably, 
it is an arrangement which does not possess so much strength as 
when the spindle is longer. The beam-ends are turned out and 
grooved to receive these spindles, the grooves for the feathers 
being made rather wider than the feathers themselves. When 
the spindles are introduced into the sockets, b, thus formed for 
them, the whole are bound together by means of the iron hoops, 
f, which are forced on whilst hot. After this, hard wooden 
wedges are jammed in on each side of the feathers, thus tightening 
and solidifying the whole mass. In addition to this, iron spikes, 
g, are sometimes hammered in, to jam up the fibres of the wood 
still closer. Fig. 1, which is a shaded and finished elevation of 
one end of the shaft, gives an accurate idea of its appearance when 
complete and ready for adjustment. 

146. Cast-iron Shaft. — There are several descriptions of cast- 
iron shafts. Some are cast hollow, others quite solid, and cylin- 
drical or prismatical in cross section. Such as are intended to 
sustain very great strains, are generally strengthened by the addi- 
tion of feathers, which project more towards the middle. These 
give great rigidity to the piece. A shaft of this description is 
represented in elevation in fig. 7, half being sectioned through the 
irregular fine, 1 — 2 — 3 — 4, and half in external elovation. Fig. 8 
is an end-view of it ; and fig. 9 a transverse section through the 
line, 5 — 6, in fig. 7. In practice, it is not considered absolutely 
necessary that a section should follow a straight line. Frequently 
a much greater amount of explanation may be given in one view, 
by supposing the object sectioned by portions of planes at differ- 
ent parts, and solid and easily comprehended portions are generally 



shown in elevation, as the feathers of the shaft, in the present in- 
stance, or the spokes of a spur-wheel or pulley. The shaft under 
consideration is such a one as is employed for hydraulic motors. 
The body, a, is cylindrical and hollow, and it is cast with four 
feathers, b, disposed at right angles to each other, and of an ex- 
ternal parabolic outline, so as to present an equal resistance to 
torsion and flexure throughout. Near the extremities of these 
feathers, four projections are cast, for the attachment of the bosses 
of the water-wheel. These projections are formed with facets, 
so as to form the corners of a circumscribing square, as shown in 
fig. 8 ; and they are planed to receive the keys, i, by which they 
are fixed and adjusted to the bosses or naves, which are grooved 
at the proper places to receive them. The spindles, d, which 
terminate the shaft at each end, are cast with it, and are afterwards 
finished by turning. The shaft thus consists of only one piece, or 
casting. 

147. Although we have already shown the method of drawing a 
parabola, in Plate V., the outline of the shaft feathers affords a 
practical exemplification, which it will be useful to illustrate. We 
here also give the method generally adopted — because of its sim- 
plicity — when the curve is a very slow or obtuse one, such as is 
given to the feathers of shafts, beams, side-levers, connecting-rods, 
and similar pieces. It is understood, in these cases, that two points 
in the curve are given ; the one, a, fig. 7, being at the summit, 
and at the same time in the middle of the piece, and the other, 6, 
situated at the extremity. In the present instance, we suppose 
the heights, a c and b d, from the axial line, m n, of the shaft to be 
given. This line, m n, may also be taken as the centre fine of a 
beam, or connecting-rod. After having drawn through the point, 
b, a line, e b.. parallel to the axis, divide the perpendicular, a e, into 
any number of equal parts, and transfer these divisions to the fine, 
b i, the prolongation of the line, d b ; then draw lines from the 
points, 1, 2, 3, to the summit, a. Further, divide also the length, 
cd, into the same number of equal parts as the perpendicular, 
and, through the divisions, 1', 2,' 3', draw other perpendiculars, 
the respective points, f,g, h, of intersection of these with the lines 
already drawn, will be points in the required curve. As the 
lower feather is an exact counterpart of the upper one, the perpen- 
diculars may bo prolonged downwards, and corresponding distances, 
as 1'—/', 2' — g', 3 — h', set off on them. To draw, also, the half 
of each feather to the left, it is merely necessary to erect perpen- 
diculars of corresponding lengths, at corresponding points in the 
axis. A different method of drawing tlus curve is sometimes 
adopted; namely, the one which wo havo already given in Plate 
IX., for the entasis of the Tuscan column. As. however, it does 
not possess the advantages of the true parabolic form, and as the 
curve becomes too sudden towards tho extremities, we think the 
method given in Plate XII. is to be preferred. 

Fig. 3 represents a portion of the shaft, just discussed, shaded 
and finished, the lines running in different directions, the better to 
distinguish the flat from the round surfaces, 

148. Shaft Coupling. — In extensive factories, and other works, 

where considerable lengths of shafting are necessary, they have 
to be constructed in several pieces, and coupled together. Thee* 

Couplings are generally of east-iron, and formed of one or mere 
pieces, according to their size. One form consists o( a sneeics ot 



40 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



cylindrical socket, accurately turned internally, which receives 
the ends of the two shafts to he connected, these being scarfed or 
halved into each other, so as to be bound well together, and re- 
volve like one continuous piece. According to another form, two 
sockets are employed, of increased diameter at the part where they 
meet, and formed at this part into quadrant-shaped clutches, 
gearing with each other. The coupling represented in side eleva- 
tion, in fig. 10, is of this kind ; and in front elevation, as separated, 
in fig. 11. 

This coupling was designed for a shaft, of which the diameter 
at the collars was 28 centimetres. The socket, a, of the coupling, 
is adjusted on the end of the first part of the shaft, c. The other 
socket, a', is similarly adjusted on the end of the other part, c', 
of the shaft. These two socket-pieces gear with each other, 
when brought together, by means of the projections or clutches, 
b and b', concentric portions, however, being adapted to fit the 
one into the other, to insure the coincidence of their centres. 
Fig. 11, which is a front view of the socket- piece, a, shows the 
exact shape and dimensions of these projecting clutches, each 
occupying a quadrant of the circle on the face of the socket-piece. 
Those of the second piece, a', are precisely the same, occupying, 
however, the intervals of those on a, so that the two may fit 
exactly into each other, as shown in fig. 10. The perfect and 
accurate union of these coupling-pieces with the two portions of 
shafting is obtained, in the first place, by means of two keys, a, 
diametrically opposite to each other, and let half into the shaft, 
and hah into the socket-piece ; and secondly, by screws, b, one of 
which is visible in fig. 10. The keys, a, are for the purpose of 
fixing the coupling-pieces to the two portions of shafting, making 
them solid therewith ; and the screws, b, prevent the longitudinal 
separation of the two halves of the coupling. 

THE METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING A WOODEN MODEL OR PATTERN 
OF A COUPLING. 

149. After the design for any piece of mechanism which it is 
proposed to cast has been decided on, it is generally necessary to 
construct a model or pattern in wood, by which to form the 
moulds for the casting. The proper formation of such a pattern is 
no easy matter, and requires considerable skill on the part of the 
pattern-maker, as also a knowledge of the kind of wood most ap- 
propriate, and of the various precautions needed to insure success 
when the mould comes to be prepared. 

It is customary to construct the patterns of deal, because of its 
cheapness. Sometimes, however, plane-tree or sycamore or oak 
is used ; and for small patterns, and such as require great precision, 
mahogany, box, or walnut. Whatever kind of wood is used, it 
should be perfectly dry, and well seasoned. The pattern is made 
solid, or hollow and built up, according to the dimensions of the 
object. For a drum, for instance, a column of any considerable 
width, a steam-engine cylinder, or for a coupling of large size, 
such as that represented in figs. 12, 13, and 14, the pattern is 
generally hollow, for economizing the wood, and reducing the 
weight of the piece. Also, if built up, there is less risk of warp- 
ing or alteration of form, from changes of temperature. In fio-. 
1 3, the pattern of a coupling-piece is represented, partly in exter- 
nal side elevation, and partly in longitudinal section, being cut by 



a vertical plane, passing through the axis. Fig. 12 is a front 
elevation, showing the projecting clutches. It is easy to see from 
these views, that the pattern is formed of two boards, d d', round 
the circumferences of wliich are fitted a series of staves, e, secured 
to the boards by screws. The wood for these staves is first cut 
up into pieces of the required thickness, and the sides are then 
bevilled off, to coincide with the radii, c d, c e, fig. 14. They are 
then fitted to the boards, d d', and at this stage present the ap- 
pearance of the left-hand portion of fig. 14. The drum is after- 
wards put into the lathe, and the circumference is reduced to a 
cylindrical surface, like the right-hand portion of the same figure. 

On one of the ends, d, of this drum, is fixed the projecting 
clutch-piece, b, which has been previously cut out of a board of 
greater thickness, so as to present the outline of fig. 12. On the 
opposite end, d', of the drum, are fixed several discs, or thicknesses, 
of wood, f, winch are turned down to a diameter proportionate to 
the central socket which it is intended to form in the coupling- 
piece. After having been turned where necessary, the pattern is 
treated with sand-paper to make the surface as smooth as possible, 
and to prevent the adherence of the loam of which the mould is 
formed. Such patterns, particularly when of small size, are more- 
over coated with black-lead, well rubbed in, to give a polish 
and hardness to the surface. The diameter of the core-piece, f, 
is less than that of the shaft to which the coupling is to be fitted, 
so as to leave some margin in the casting for turning and grinding 
down the socket to the exact dimensions. The core itself, which 
gives form to the socket, is a cylinder of loam placed in the centre 
of the mould, fitted into the recess formed for that purpose by the 
piece, f. As in the present example, the mould would be con- 
structed on end, and the core is very short, it would not require 
further support ; but where a core -is very long, or placed in a 
horizontal position, it requires to be supported at both ends, and, 
further, to be strengthened by wires or rods passing through its 
centre. For this reason, a core-piece, as f, is only attached to 
one end of the drum. It will be observed that this is slightly 
conical ; the drum is so also, but to a less extent ; the core itself, 
however, is quite cylindrical. 

150. Draw, or Taper, and Shrink, or Allowance for Con- 
traction. — In order that the pattern may be -lifted from the mould 
■without bringing away portions of the sides, it is necessary to form 
its sides with a slight taper, or draw, as it is technically called. 
For example, the diameter of the core-piece, f, as well as that of 
the drum itself, must be less at the lower extremity, or at the part 
first introduced into the mould, than at the opposite extremity. 
A very slight difference of diameter is sufficient for the purpose. 

Cast-iron, as is the case with all the metals of the engineer, is of 
less bulk when cold than when in a state of fusion, and, because of 
this contraction, it is necessary to make the patterns of somewhat 
larger dimensions than the casting is to be when finished. It 
follows, then, that when the pieces to be cast have afterwards to 
be planed, turned, ground, or grooved, it is necessary to bear in 
mind, in constructing the wooden' pattern, not only the after re- 
duction due to the contraction, or, as it is termed, the shrink, of 
the metal, but also that wliich is occasioned by the reducing pro- 
cesses involved in finishing the article. In general, grey iron 
requires an allowance for shrink of from 1 to 1 ^ per cent.; white 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



41 



iron, however, requires a much larger allowance. The allowance 
to be made for the reduction caused by the finishing processes, 
depends entirely on their nature. 

1 When, with a view to avoid the expense of constructing a 
pattern, the mould is formed from the actual object which is to be 
reproduced or multiplied, the mould-makers obtain the necessary 
margin by shifting the model slightly during the formation of the 
mould. This, of course, can only be done with advantage when 
the piece is not of intricate shape. 



ELEMENTARY APPLICATIONS 

KAILS AND CHAIRS TOR RAILWAYS. 

PLATE XIII. 

151. In railways, the two iron rails on which the trains run are 
placed at the distance apart, or gauge, of li metres, and are 
generally formed of lengths of 4| to 5 metres. In England, the 
gauge is generally 4 feet 8£ inches, and the rails are rolled in 
lengths of from 12 to 15 feet. These rails are supported by 
cast-iron chairs, placed at from 9 to 10 decimetres asunder, and 
adjusted and bolted on oak sleepers, lying across the rails, imbed- 
ded even with the surface. Those chairs which occur at the 
junctions of the lengths of rails are made wider at the base, and 
of greater length, so as to embrace the end of each length of rail, 
and render their rectilineal- adjustment and union as perfect as 
possible. 

In Plate XIII. we give details of a very common form of rail and 
chair. There are many different forms in use ; but the method of 
drawing or designing each will be similar, and may be thoroughly 
understood from the exemplification here given. Figs. 1 and 2 
represent the elevation and plan of a chair, with a portion of 
the rail winch it supports. Fig. 3 is a vertical section through 
the line, 1 — 2, in the plan; but supposing the chair to be turned 
round, or to belong to the right-hand rail — showing, in connexion 
with fig. 1, the relative positions of the two lines of rails, with 
their respective chairs. Fig. 4 is a- side view of the chair alone, and 
fig. 5 is an end view of a length of rail. This chair, which is de- 
signed with the view of combining solidity and strength with 
economy of material, consists of a wide base, A, by which it is 
seated on the sleeper, and of two lateral jaws, e, b', strengthened 
by double feathers, c, c'. The base, b, is perforated at a — the 
holes being cylindrical, and slightly rounded at their upper edges. 
These holes are for the reception of the bolls which secure the 
chair to the sleeper. The space between the jaws of the chair is 
for the reception of the rail, d, and the wooden wedge, e, which 
holds it in position. 

In this example, the vertical section of the rail, r>, presents an 
outline which is symmetrical with reference both to the vortical 
centre line, be, and also to the horizontal lino, d e, fig. 5. Tliis 
permits of the rail being turned when one of the running surfaces 
is worn. The section of tho wedge, e, is also symmetrica] with 
reference to Its diagonals, so that it is immaterial which way it 
is introduced, whilst it also fits equally well to tho rail when the 
latter is reversed. 



The outline of the rail is composed of straight fines and arcs, 
which are geometrically and evenly joined, as shown in fig. 5. 
The necessary operations are fully indicated on the drawing itself. 
These operations are, for the most part, but the repetition and 
combination of the problems treated of in the first division of the 
subject. We have, moreover, given some of the problems de 
tached, and on a larger scale, in figs. 6, 7, 8. Fig. 6 recalls the 
problem (35), which has for its object the drawing of an arc, ij k. 
tangent to the straight lines, fg and g h, the radius, o k, being 
given, equal to 31 - 5 m / m . (fig. 2, Plate III.) This problem meets 
with an application at fg h, fig. 5. In fig. 7 we have the problem 
(37), which requires that an arc, Imn, be drawn tangent to a 
straight line, n p, and to a given arc, qrl, the point of contact, n, 
being known (fig. 6, Plate ILL) This meets with its application at 
I m n, fig. 5. , 

The problem illustrated by fig. 8 is, to draw a tangent, g*/ 1 , 
to two given circles of radii, ■ s t and o 1 k", respectively. In 
this problem (9), we require to find a common point, u, on the 
line, os, which joins the centres of the two circles. To effect 
this, we draw through the centres, o and s, any two diameters, v x 
and ■»' x', parallel to each other. Join two opposite extremities of 
each, as v and x', by the straight line, v x', which will cut the line, 
o' s, in the point, u. The problem then reduces itself to the draw- 
ing of a tangent to any single circumference (fig. 4, Plate I.), from 
a given point, u. The tangents obtained, in the present instance, 
will lie in one straight line, and be the line required — tangent to 
both circles. The application of this problem is at xk?t in 
fig. 4. 

On fig. 9 we have also indicated the solution of a problem (41), 
which is — to draw an arc, y z, of a given radius, a' b', tangent to 
two other arcs, having the radii, c' d' and e'/ 3 (fig. 8, Plate III.) 
This problem is called for in drawing the outline of the jaw of the 
chair, where it runs into the base, a, near the edge of the bolt- 
hole, a, fig. 3. 

To complete the outline of the chair, it remains for us to show 
how to determine the lines, g' h', which represent the intersections 
of portions of cylindrical surfaces, as will be gathered from fig's. 1 
to 4. To avoid a confusion of lines, we have reproduced this 
portion in figs. 10, 11, and 12, which represent — the two former, 
vertical sections of each cylindrical portion, and the latter, the line 
of intersection in plan. 

We must first determine on fig. 12, which corresponds to fig. 2, 
tho horizontal projection, i', of any point, as i, taken on the arc, 
g' h', in fig. 10 ; letting fall from tliis point, on the base line, l t, a 
perpendicular, i i', and also drawing from it a horizontal line, t i\ 
Tliis latter line meets the cylindrical outline, g' h', fig. 11, in P. 
Project i" in i s on the base line, transferring it to a line at right 
angles to the base lino, by means of a quadrant oi' a circle, and 
draw through tho point thus obtained a line parallel to (ho base 
lino, and meeting tho lino tt' hi i', which will bo a point in the 
curve required; other points, as/, n', are found in a similar 
manner. 

It must bo observed, that when tho two cylindrical portions are 
of equal diameters, tiieir intersection with each other, ^'/i'. as will 
bo demonstrated hereafter, is projected horizontally as a straight 
lino; the greater the difference between the two cylinders, the more 



4 -J 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



curved will the line of their intersection be, as is apparent in figs. 
10, 11, 12. 

The outlines of the feathers, c and c', glide into that of the 
base, a, with a curve which, in the plan, is projected in the arc, 
k' V. The operation necessary to determine these curves, is quite 
analogous to that treated of ui reference to the preceding figures, 
and will be found sufficiently explained in figs. 13, 14, and 15. We 
should here remark, that we have given explanatory diagrams of 
all the sweeps or combinations of curves, both that the student 
may be well exercised in many of the problems already discussed, 
and also with a view of collecting, in one plate, several of the diffi- 
culties which more frequently meet the draughtsman in the course 
of his practice. In such objects as that chosen for exemplification, 
very little of the nicety here earned out is observed, and the 
curves are generally obtained by measurements with callipers from 
the object itself, or are formed of arcs determined by the eye. 

The rails are not adjusted in their chairs perpendicularly, but 
are inclined slightly towards each other, in such a manner that 
their centre lines, c 5, form a slight angle with the vertical, c 5 2 : this 
inclination is given to counteract any tendency that the carnages 
may have to run off the rails, as is the case more particularly in 
curves, from the effort made by the wheels to run in a straight 
line. The expedient of laying the outer or convex rail at a level 
slightly higher than the other, is also resorted to in quick curves, 
for the like purpose of keeping the trains on the line. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

152. The various materials employed in mechanical and other 
constructions, differ considerably in their several natures, both with 
reference to the amount of force they will bear or resist uninjured, 
and the description of force or mode of applying it, to which they 
offer the greatest resistance. 

Such forces are termed, according to the mode in which they 
are applied — tension, compression, flexure, and torsion. 

A series of practical rules have been deduced from often re- 
peated experiments, which serve as guides for readily calculating 
the dimensions of any piece of mechanism, with reference to the 
description and degree of force to which it will be subjected. 

RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION OR CRUSHING FORCE. 

153. Compression is a force which strives to crush, or render 
more dense, the fibres or molecules of any substance which is sub- 
mitted to its action. 

According to Rondelet's experiments, a prism of oak, of such 
dimensions that its length or height is not greater than seven times 
the least dimension of its transverse section, will be crushed by a 
weight of from 385 to 462 kilogrammes, to the square centimetre 
of transverse section, or a weight of from 5,470 to 6,547 per square 
inch of transverse section. 

In general, with oak or cast-iron, flexure begins to take place in 
a piece submitted to a crushing force, as soon as the length or 
height reaches ten times the least dimension of the transverse 
section. Up to this point, the resistance to compression is pretty 
regular. 



Wrought-iron begins to be compressed under a weight of 4,900 
kilog. per square centimetre, or of nearly 70,000 per square inch, 
and bends previously to crushing, as soon as the length or height 
of the piece exceeds three times the least dimension of the trans- 
verse section. 

We show, in the following table, to what extent per square inch 
we may safely load bodies of various substances. 

Table of the Weights which Solids — such as Columns, Pilasters, 
Supports — will sustain without being crushed. 

WOODS AND METALS. 



Description 

of 

Material. 



Sound oak, . . . 
Inferior oak, . . 
Pitch pine, . . . 
Common pine, 
"Wrought-iron, 
Cast-iron, 
Rolled copper, 



Proportion of length to least dimension. 



Up to 12. 



!b. 

426-750 

210-215 

533-437 

137-982 

14225-000 

28450-000 

11707-175 



Above 12. 



lb. 
355-625 
119-490 
440-975 
116-645 
11877-875 
23755-750 



Above 24. 


Above 48. 


lb. 


lb. 


213-375 


71-125 


71-125 


" 


266-007 


106-687 


69-702 


" 


7112-500 


2375-575 


14225-000 


4741-666 



Above 60. 



lb. 
35-562 



1194-900 
2375-575 



STONES, BRICKS, AND MORTARS. 



Description of Material 



Basaltic Marble, Swedish and Auvergnese, 

Granite from Normandy, 

" green, from Vosges, 

" grey, from Bretagne, 

" " from Vosges, 

" ordinary, 

Marble, hard, 

" white and veined, 

Freestone, hard, 

soft, 

Stone from Chatillon, near Paris, 

Very hard freestone, or lias, from Bagneux, near Paris, 

A softer stone, from the same place, 

Stone from ArcueO, near Paris, 

" from Saillancourt, near Pontoise, best quality, . 

" from Conflans, much used at Paris, 

Hard calcareous stone 

Ordinary calcareous stone 

Calcareous. stone from Givry, near Paris, 

" " ordinary, from the same place, 

An inferior stone, termed Lambourde, 

Bricks, very hard 

" inferior, 

" hard and well-baked, 

" red, 

A soft stone, Lambourde vergetee, 

Plaster, mixed with water, 

" mixed with lime-water, 

Mortar, best, eighteen months old, 

" ordinary, eighteen months old, 

" of lime and sand, 

Cement, 

" Roman, or Neapolitan, 



Length being 

less than 

12 times least 

dimension. 



lb. 

2845 

996 

882 

925 

597 

569 

1422 

427 

1280 

6 

242 

726 

185 

355 

199 

128 

711 

427 

441 

171 

33 

171 

57 

213 

85 

85 

71 

104 

57 

36 

50 

68 

53 



Rule. — To find, by means of this table, the greatest compress- 
ing weight to which any piece may be submitted with safety : — 
Multiply the transverse sectional area of the piece by the number m 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



43 



Vie table, corresponding to the material, and to the proportionate 
length of the piece. And inversely, from the weight which a piece 
is to support, its smallest transverse section may be determined. 
By dividing this weight, expressed in pounds, by the number in the 
table corresponding to tlie material, and to the proportionate length. 

First Example. — What weight can be pat with safety upon a 
pillar constructed of ordinary bricks, the pillar being of a rectan- 
gular section, of 50 inches by 60, and the height being below 12 
times the length of this cross section ? 

We have 50 x 60 = 3000 square inches of transverse sectional 
area. Then, according to the table, we have — 
3000 x 57 = 171,000 lbs. 

Second Example. — What must be the transverse sectional area 
of a square post of sound oak, 19 feet 8 inches in height, and 
which will safely bear a load of 60,000 lbs. ? 

According to the table, if we suppose the length to be not more 
than 12 tunes the least cross section, the number or coefficient of 
compression, in pounds per square inch, is 426-75. 



Then, 
and 



60,00 
426-75 



140 square inches ; 



■^140 =11-8 inches, the length of the supposed side. 
Comparing tins 11-8 inches with the given height, we find that 

1 9 ft. 8 in. 



11-8 in. 



236 
11-8 



= 20. 



Tins shows — and we have constructed the example with this 
view — that in this instance the proportionate length has not been 
correctly estimated ; and therefore, instead of taking the number 
426*75, as in the first column, we must take that in the second 
column, for a proportionate length of between 12 and 24 times the 
cross section. The calculation will, consequently, have to be 
rectified thus — 

60,000 . , 

355-625 = 168 ' 7 SqUai ' e m ° heS ' 
and VT68-7 = 13 inches nearly, the proper dimension for the 
cross section of the post. 

Third Example. — What is the greatest load that can be borne 
with safety by a solid cast-iron column, 3 inches in diameter, and 
12 feet in height? 

It is, in the first place, evident that the ratio of the diameter to 
the height is 12 feet, or 144 inches, -=- 3 inches = 48. 

Consequently, 
the section -785 x 3 2 x 4741-666 = 33,500 lbs. 

In shops and warehouses, builders employ solid cast-iron 
columns, instead of brick pillars, so as to take up less space. These 
columns are generally calculated to support loads of above 
33,000 lbs. each. They are usually about 3 inches in diameter, 
and 1 2 feet high. In which case, supposing a cubic foot of cast- 
iron weighs 452 lbs., they will weigh (3 inches being equal to -25 
foot)— 

•785 X -25 2 X 12 x 452 = 266 lbs. 

If, instead of these columns being massivo or solid, we employ, 
in place of two of them, a hollow one, to support the proportionate 
load of 66,000 lbs., and being 6 inches in diameter, this increase 



in the diameter makes the ratio of the length to it 24, instead of 
48; and the coefficient to be taken from the table will conse- 
quently be 14,225, instead of 4742. 

Now, 66,000 -4- 14,225 = 4-64 square inches, would be the 
cross section of a solid pillar, equivalent to that of which the 
thickness is sought. Since, however, the diameter of the latter is 
6 inches, its section of solidity would be — 

•785 x6 2 = 28-26 square inches. 
Then, deducting from this area 4 - 64 square inches, as above 
determined, we have 28-26 — 4-64 = 23-62, for the cross sectional 
area of the central hollow. From this we deduce the internal 
diameter, thus — 



/23-6i 



5'485 inches. 



And, finally, the thickness of the column will be — 

6 ~ 5 ' 485 = -2575 inches. 
2 

The weight of such a column, if 12 feet in height, will be — 

4-64 

-i-TI x 12 x 452 = 174-77 lbs. 
144 

This result shows very markedly how great an economy results 
from the employment of hollow in place of solid cast-iron columns. 
The thickness, determined as above, of -2575 inch, is theoretically 
sufficient, but in practice we seldom find such castings under half 
an inch thick. , 

In the above examples, too, the mouldings usually added to the 
columns are not taken into the account. With these, the weight 
will be a tenth or so more, according to the description of moulding. 

TENSIONAL RESISTANCE. 

155. A tensile force is one which acts on a body in the direc- 
tion of its length, tending to increase the length, and when carried 
to a sufficient extent, to cause rupture. 

As with reference to compression, many experiments have been 
made to determine the sectional area to be given to bodies of 
various materials submitted to a tensile strain, so that they may 
safely resist a given force. 

First Example. — Required the sectional area for four square 
tension rods of wrought-iron, to connect the top and bottom of a 
hydraulic press, in which the force which tends to separate these 
two ends, and consequently to rupture the rods, is equal to 500,000 
lbs. 

Each rod must be capable of resisting 

500,000 

; — = 125,000 lbs. 

4 

According to the table, the best wrought-iron may bo safely 

subjected to a strain of 14,225 lbs. per square inch of cross section. 

We have, consequently, 

125,000 „ n . . 

= 8-79 square Inches, 

14,225 

for the area of the cross section ; and 

V8-79 = 2-961, or nearly 3 inches, 
for a side of the square rod. If the rod were round, w <• should have — 



/8-79 
D = V : 7W = 



3-345 inches, for the diameter. 



44 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Iu the same manner, the diameter proper for steam-engine 
piston-rods may be calculated, when the pressure on the piston is 
known. 

Table of Weights which Prisms and Cylinders will sustain when 
submitted to a Tensile Strain. 



Description of Material. 



Oak, 

Deal, 



Woods. 

with the grain, J , . ' 

6 ' ( ordinary, 

across the grain, 



with the grain 

across the grain 

Ash, with the grain, 

Elrn, " 

Beech, " 

Metals. 

Wrought or ( ? ll P erior . a " d ■*** »T&* . 
bar iron l ln ' el-lor . m discnminateIyselected 

' ( medium, , 

Sheet ( in the direction in which it was rolled, 
iron, ( in the direction perpendicular to this, 

Hoop ii'on, soft 

" Be Laigle, O09 inch, or -23 m / 

in diameter, 

inferior, and of considerable 

diameter, . 
best, from - 02 to -04 inch, or - 5 

to 1 m / m in diameter, , 

medium quality, -04 to -12 inch 
^ or 1 to 3 ra / m in diameter, ... 
Iron wire rope, , 

Iron cables, \ "f***™^ ° h !™S ^ks, ■ ■ 
( strengthened by stays, 



Unannealed 
iron wire, 



Grey cast iron, \ ™ vertically strongest kind ; 
( run horizontally, inferior, . . 



: 



Unannealed 
copper wire, 



feast or wrought, selected, 
Steel -I mfel 'i 01 > badly tempered, taken indis- 

' "I criminately, 

l_ medium, , 

Gun metal, average, 

Trolled lengthwise, 

Copper, \ f BU P eri ° r 1 ualit 3'> 

1 hammered, 

cast 

superior, under -04 inch, or l m /„ 

in diameter, 

medium, from -04 to -08 inch, or 

1 to 2 m / m in diameter, 

_ inferior, 

Yellow copper, or fine brass 

Unannealed ( Su P er *? r > ™ der '04 inch, or l*/. 

brass wire, j ln ^meter, 

( medium, 

Platinum ( hardened, unannealed, -0045 inch, 

' • < or - 127 m / m in diameter 

' ( hardened, annealed 

Cast tin 

Cast zinc 

Sheet zinc, 

Cast lead, 

Sheet lead, 



Cordage. 

Hawsers and cables of Strasburg hemp. - 5 to - 6 
inch, or 13 to 14 m / m in diameter, 

Do. of Lorraine hemp 

Do. of Lorraine or Strasburg hemp, -9 inch, or 
23 m / m in diameter, 

Do. of Strasburg hemp, 1-5 to 2 inch, or 40 to 
54 m / m in diameter, 

Old rope, -9 inch, or 23 ™/ m in diameter, .... 

Black leather bands, 



Per square 

inch of 

cross section 



lbs. 
1,138 
853 

228 
!l,138to 
>1,280 

60 
1,707 
1,479 
1,138 



14,225 
5,917 
9,474 
9,957 
8,535 
1,069 

21,337 

11,850 

18,996 

14,225 
7,112 
5,690 
7,587 
3,201 
3,087 

23,702 

8,535 

17,781 
5,448 
4,979 
6,117 
5,932 
3,314 

16,600 

11,850 
9,488 
2,987 

20,143 
11,850 

27,511 

8,066 

711 

1,422 

1,185 

303 

320 



6,259 
4,623 

4,267 

3,912 

2,987 

284 



Per square 
oeutinietreof 
cross section. 



kilog. 
80 
60 
16 

80 to 90 

4-2 
120 
104 

80 



1,000 
416 
666 
700 
600 
750 

1,500 

833 

1,333 

1,000 

500 

400 

533 

225 

217 
1,667 

600 
1,250 
383 
350 
433 
417 
233 

1,167 

833 
667 
210 

1,416 
833 

1,933 

567 
50 

100 
83-3 
21-3 
22-5 



440 
325 

300 

275 

210 

20 



Second Example. — Required the amount of tensile or tractive 
force which can safely be resisted by a carriage draw-shaft, made 
of ash, and having a cross-sectional area of 15 - 5 square inches. 

According to the table, we have — 

1707 lbs. x 15-5 = 26-460 lbs. 

155. Pulley Bands. — The following simple formula may gene- 
rally be employed in practice, to determine the dimensions proper 
for pulley bands : — 

_ 20 x H P . 
Li = 5 

v 

in which L is the width of the band in inches ; H P, the force in 

horse power ; and v, the velocity in feet per minute. 

By horse power is meant a force equal to 33,000 lbs., raised 

1 foot high in a minute. French engineers call it 75 kilogrammes, 

raised a metre high per second, which is very nearly the same as 

the English measure. To suit the French system, the above for 

mula would be — 

1500 x H P 

Li = , 

v 

V, in this case, signifying the velocity in centimetres per second, 
and L, the width in centimetres. The thickness of the leather is 
supposed to be that of strong ox-hide, say about "2 inch, or 5°7 m . 

The above formula gives rise to the following rule: — Multiply 
the horse power by the constant multiplier, 20, and divide the pro- 
duct by the velocity in feet per minute, and the quotient will be the 
width of the band in inches. 

Example. — Let H P = 2 horse power, v = 10 feet per minute, 
then, 

T 20 X 2 4 ■ t. 

L = ■ — — — ■ = 4 inches. 

This formula satisfies the following conditions — that toe band 
do not slide round the pulley which it embraces ; that it be not 
liable to increase perceptibly in length ; and that it be capable of 
resisting the strain transmitted by it. 

It is found advisable never to make the respective diameters 
of two pulleys, coupled together, in a greater ratio to each other 
than 1 : 3. 

RESISTANCE TO FLEXURE. 

156. The resistance of a piece of any material to flexure, is the 
effort which it opposes to all strain acting upon it in a direction 
perpendicular to its length, as in the case of levers, beams, or 
shafts. 

Bodies may be submitted to the strain of flexure in several 
ways. Thus, the piece may be firmly fixed in a wall by one end, 
whilst the straining weight or force is applied at the other ; or it 
may be securely fixed at both ends, and the weight applied in the 
centre ; or it may be supported at the centre, and have the weight 
applied at both extremities. 

We shall first consider the case of a piece fixed by one end, 
and subjected to a strain at the other. 

Let W be the weight in pounds, placed at a distance, L, in 
inches from the wall, in which the piece under experiment ia 
fixed ; C, a coefficient varying with the. material ; a, the horizontal 
dimension in inches of cross section ; b, the vertical dimension, 
similarly expressed; — then the greatest weight that the piece will 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



45 



bear, without undergoing alteration, will be determinable by the 
following formula, the piece being of rectangular section, and fixed 
at one end, and weighted at the other. 



W = 



C Xab 2 
6L 



Now, 



C = 8,535, for wrought-iron ; 
10,668, for cast-iron ; 
854, for oak and deal. 
Substituting these values of C, in the preceding formula, we 
shall have, for pieces of rectangular section, according to the 
material — 

For Wrought- Iron. 

p = 8535Xs^ or more s;mply? = 1422-5 X a b 2 



For Cast-iron. 

10,668 xab" 1 , . , 

P — — '. — ~^- — -', or more simply, = 



L 

1778 xab 2 



6L 



For Wood. 



n 854 x a b 2 

P = 2~f > or more simply, 

o Li 



L 

142 xab 2 



These formulae lead us to the following rule for pieces of rect- 
angular section: — Multiply the horizontal dimension in inches of 
cross section, by the square of the vertical dimension in inches, and 
by a coefficient depending on the material : then divide the product 
by the length in inches, and the quotient will be the weight in pounds, 
which the piece will sustain without alteration. 

This rule is derived from the fact, that the transverse resistance 
of pieces submitted to a deflective strain is inversely as their 
length, directly as their width, and as the square of their vertical 
thickness. 

According to this, pieces fixed at one end, and intended to bear 
a strain at the other, should be placed on edge ; in other woras, 
the greatest cross section should be parallel to the direction of the 
strain. 

First Example. — What weight can be suspended, without causing 
deflection, to the free end of a wrought-iron bar, fixed horizontally 
into a wall at one end, and projecting 5 feet (= 60 inches) from it; 
the bar being of a rectangular cross section, having its horizontal 
dimension, a = 1-2 inches, and its vertical dimension, b = 1*6 
inches 1 

We have 

1422-5 x 1-2 x 1-6 2 



P = 



60 



72-8 lbs. 



This result is obtained on the supposition that the bar is placed 
on edge ; but what would be the weight, other things being equal, 
supposing the bar to be placed on its side — that is, when 1-6 inches 
is its horizontal dimension, a, and 1-2 its vertical dimension, bl 

We have, in this case, 

1422-5 x 1-6 X 1-2 2 



P = 



60 



54-6 lbs. 



This inferior result shows the advantago of placing tho bar on 
edge. 

When the piece under experiment is of squaro instead of oblong 
section, a nccossarily = b, and a b 2 becomes b ', and this is conse- 
quently to be substituted in tho formual for the former. 



If, however, the piece is cylindrical, the formula will be — D 
representing the diameter, 

854 x D 3 



For wrought-iron, P = 
For cast-iron, P = 

For wood, P = 

In each of the cases just referred to, the transverse sectional 
dimensions of pieces fixed at one end, and submitted to a strain 
at the other, are determined by the following formulas : — 



L 

1066 x D 3 
L ' 
85 x D 3 



Material. 



Wrought-iron, . . 

Cast-iron, 

Wood, 



Form of Section. 



Rectangular. 



ab 2 
a b 2 
a b 2 



PL 



1,422-5 
PL 



1,778 
PL 
142 



Square. 



PL 

1,422-5 
PL. 



1,778 

PL 

142 



Circular. 



D 3 
D 3 
D 3 



PL 

854 
PL 
1066 
PL 

85 



The rule derivable from these formulas for the determination of 
the transverse section, whether rectangular, square, or circular, of a 
bar or beam fixed by one end and loaded at the other is thus stated :— 
Multiply the weight in pounds by its distance in inches from the sup- 
port ; divide the product by a coefficient varying with the material 
and form of section ; and extract the cube root, which will give in 
inches the vertical dimension, the side of the square, or the diameter 
of the circle, according as tlie bar or beam is rectangular, square, or 
circular in cross section. 

First application : What should be the transverse section of a 
rectangular wrought-iron bar, intended to carry at its free end, and 
at a distance of 5 feet from its support, a weight of 72-8 lbs., the 
bar being supposed to be placed on edge ? 

We have here, 

72-8 lbs. x 60 in. 



ab 2 = 

1,422-5 

then, if a be taken =1-2 inches, 



=3071 ; 



/3-071 

VT2- 



1-6 inches, the vertical dimension. 



Second application: What should the sido of the cross section 
measure, of a square bar, under similar circumstances otherwise ? 

72-8 x 60 
b " 1422-5 = 3 '° 71 ' "' Ul 

3 

b — V 3-071 = 1-454 in., the thickness of (he bar. 

157. Observations. — When the bar, or beam, under experi- 
ment possesses in itself any weight capable of Influencing its 
resistance ; or, besides the weight suspended or anting at one end, 
has a weight equally distributed throughout iis length; the trans- 
verse-sectional dimensions are, in tho Srsl place, determined with- 



46 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



out taking the additional weight into consideration. This is, 
then, calculated approximately, and the half of it added to the 
suspended load, a fresh calculation being made with this sum as 
a basis. 

A bar, or beam, fixed by one end, and loaded at the other, has 
always a tendency to break off at the shoulder, or point of junc- 
tion, with its support, because it is on that point that the weight 
or strain acts with the greatest leverage. When, therefore, the 
transverse section of the piece has been determined, in accordance 
with the formulae given above, which are calculated for the 
dimensions of the piece at the shoulder ; the section may be bene- 
ficially diminished towards the free extremity, thereby economis- 
ing the material, and lessening its own overhanging weight. The 
curve proper to give the outline is the parabola, as described in 
reference to Plates V. and XH. It may also be obtained in the 
following manner, for the particular case under consideration : — 
Calculate the transverse section for different lesser lengths of the 
piece, the other data remaining as before, and the required curve 
will be one which passes through the outline of each section, when 
they are placed at distances from the load equal to the lengths for 
which they are calculated. This curve is also given to bars, 
beams, or shafts, fixed at both ends and loaded in their middle, or 
sustaining a uniform weight throughout their length. The cast- 
iron shaft represented in Plate XII. may be taken as an example 
of this. Steam-engine beams and side levers are also formed with 
feathers of this shape, as it gives them a uniform resistance 



throughout, so that they are not liable to break or give way iu 
any one point rather than another. 

A bar, or beam, supported in the centre, and loaded at either 
end, will support double the weight capable of being earned by 
one of similar dimensions, supported at one, and loaded at the 
other end; it is, indeed, evident that each weight will only act 
with half the leverage, being only half the distance from the point 
of support. 

Similarly, a bar, or beam, freely supported at both extremities, 
and loaded in the centre, will support a weight double that sus- 
tained by a piece of the same dimensions fixed at one, and loaded 
at the otber end. Therefore, in calculating the proportions for 
these two last-mentioned cases, it is necessary simply to double 
the coefficient, c, given for the first case. 

A bar, or beam, firmly and solidly fixed by both ends, will sup- 
port a load four times as great as one of the same dimensions 
fixed at one end, and loaded at the other extremity. It will, con- 
sequently, be necessary to quadruple the above coefficient in this 
case. 

For calculating the diameters of the spindles, or journals, of 
cast-iron shafts for hydraulic motors, which are intended to sus- 
tain great weights, the following particular formula may be 
employed : — 

D = VW x -1938, 
where D expresses the diameter in inches, and W the weight to 
be sustained in pounds. 



TABLE OF THE DIAMETERS OF THE JOURNALS OF WATER-WHEEL AND OTHER SHAFTS FOR HEAVY WORK. 





Diameter of Journal in Inches. 




Diameter of Journal in Inches. 






Total load in. 
Pounds. 




Pounds. 












Cast-iron. 


Wrought-iron. 




Cast-iron. 


Wrought-iron. 


17-2 


1 

2 


•4315 


70343 


8 


6-9040 


137-4 


1 


•8630 


84373 


8| 


7-3355 


463-7 


H 


1-2945 


100156 


9 


7-7670 


1099-0 


2 


1-7260 


117793 


94 


8-1985 


2146-7 


H 


21575 
2-5890 


137388 


10 


8-6300 


3709-5 


3 


158604 


104 


9-0615 


5890-5 


34 


3-0205 


182864 


11 


9-4930 


8805-6 


4 


3-4520 


208950 


111 


9-9245 


12619-5 


H 


3-8835 


237296 


12 


10-3560 


17175-5 


5 


4-3150 


268012 


124 


10-7875 


22858-0 


54 


4-7465 


311666 


13 


11-2190 


29676-0 


6 


5-1780 


338026 


13-1 


11-6505 


37730-0 


64 


5-6095 


376993 


14 


12-0820 


438730 


7 


6-0410 


418845 


14* 


12-5135 


589157 


7| 


6-4725 


463685 


15 


12-9450 



According to this formula, the diameter of the cast-iron spindle, 
or journal, is found by extracting the cube root of the weight, or 
strain, in pounds, and multiplying it by the constant, -1938, the 
product being the diameter in inches. 

The diameter for wrought-iron spindles, or journals, may be 
derived from that for cast-iron, by multiplying the latter by -863 ; 
or, directly, by employing the multiplier, -1673, in the above for- 
mula. 

Example. — Of what diameter must the spindle of a water- 



wheel shaft be, the total strain being equivalent to 70,000 lbs. ? 
Here, 



D = ^70,000 X -1938 = 7-987, or 8 inches nearly. 
A wrought-iron spindle of (7-987 X -863 =) 6-9 inches, will 
answer the same purpose. 

RESISTANCE TO TORSION. 

158. When two forces act in opposite directions, and tangen- 
tially to any solid, tending to turn its opposite ends in diffireut 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



47 



directions, or to twist it, it is said to be subjected to torsion, and 
offers more or less resistance to. this action according to its form 
and composition. Taking, for example, the main shaft of a steam- 
engine, at one end of which the power acts through a crank, set 
at right angles to it, and at the other the load, by means of wheel 
gear — the resistance which this load presents, on the one hand, 
and on the other, the power applied to the crank, represent two 
forces which tend to twist the shaft, subjecting it to the action of 
torsion. 

In machinery, all shafts and spindles which communicate power 
by a rotatory, or partially rotatory, movement on their axes, are 
subject to a torsional strain. Those which sustain the greatest 
torsional efforts are those shafts denominated first movers, the 
first recipients of the power. Such are the fly-wheel shafts of 
land engines, and the paddle-shafts of marine engines. In these 
the action is further complicated and heightened by the irregularity 
with which, in reciprocating engines, the power is communicated 
to them. Such shafts as carry very heavy toothed gearing, but 
receive and transmit the power in an equable manner, and without 
a fly-wheel, are termed second movers ; and finally, such as carry 
only pulleys, or comparatively small toothed wheels, are comprised 
in the class of third movers. Such shafts, again, as meet with an 
intermittent resistance, as is the case with all cam movements, 
require increased strength to meet this irregularity of action. 

In constructing formulae for the determination of the diameters 
of shafts, regard must always be had to the class to which they 
belong, and also to the description of work they have to perform. 

As the journals are the parts of a shaft on which the greatest 
strain is concentrated, it is obviously to the determination of their 
dimensions that our investigation should be directed. The prac- 
tical formula, for ascertaining the diameter proper for the journal 
of a cast-iron first-mover shaft, is — 



-</- 



HP 
R 



x 419. 



Here, d = diameter of journal in inches. 

H P = the horse power transmitted by the shaft. 

R = the number of revolutions of the shaft per minute. 

This formula is expressed in the foil owing rule. 

159. To determine the diameter at the journals of a cast-iron 
first-mover shaft : — Divide the horse power of the engine by the 
number of revolutions of the shaft per minute, multiply the quotient 
by the constant, 419, and extract the cubic root, which will be the 
diameter required in incites. 

For the journals of cast-iron shafts which are second movers, 
the formula is — 



'-V*? 



X206; 



and for third movers — 
d 



3 /TTp 



106. 



These are, in fact, similar to the formula given for first movers, 
with the exception, that for these the constant multiplier is 419, 
whilst for the latter it is 206 and 106, respectively. 

160. For the journals of wrought-iron shafts the same formulas 
are employed, the multipliers only being changed; these arc 249 for 
first movers, 134 for second movers, and 67 - 6 for third movers. 



If, with a view of suppressing the radical sign in the above for- 
mula?, we raise both sides of the equation to their third or cubic 
power, and further express the multiplier by m, we have 

J3 HP 
d 2 = — Xm; 

from which formula it will be seen, that the cube of the diameter 
of the journal is proportional to the force transmitted. Similarly, 
the resistance of a journal is proportional to the cube of its dia- 
meter. In other wortls, one journal, of which the diameter is 
double that of another, is capable of sustaining a strain eight times 
greater, since the cube of 2 is 8. 

161. As, in consequence of the necessity of extracting cubic 
roots, the calculation, according to these formulas, becomes very 
tedious and complex, we have rendered it much simpler by 
means of the table on the next page. 

We may, however, first observe, that the formula, 

.73 HP 

d J = -=r- X m, 

may be put in the form — 

'm ~ R ' 
or again, reversing the terms, 

m R 
7 5 = HP' 

If now we divide the coefficient, m, by the cubes of the series, 
1, 2, 3, 4, &c, representing the diameters of the journals in inches, 
we shall obtain a series of numbers corresponding to 

R 
HP' 

Thus, if 419 be successively divided by the cubes, 1, 8, 27, 64, 
&c., the numbers in the second column of the table will be 
obtained; and by dealing with the other multipliers in like manner, 
the numbers in the 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th columns, will bo 
found. 

Rule. — When the table is used, the rule for determining the 
diameter of the journal of a shaft is thus stated: — 

Divide the number of revolutions per minute of the shaft by the 
horse power, and find the number in the table tchich is nearest to the 
quotient thus obtained, bearing in mind the class and material, and 
the corresponding number in the first column will be the diaimtcr 
required. 

First Example. — What should be the diameter at the journals 
of a cast-iron first-motion shaft, for an engine of 20 horse power, 
the shaft in question to make 31 revolutions per minute? 

Wc have — 

R 31 

HP ~ 20 

It will be observed that this quotient is the nearest io the 
number 1-526 in the second column of the table, and that 1*536 is 
opposite to 6| ; the diameter, d, of the shaft journal should con- 
sequently be 6\ inches in diameter. 

If a shaft for the same purpose as the above be made of 
wroughtiron, we must look in the fifth column for the Dumber to 
which 1-55 approaches nearest It wul be observed thai it lies 
between the numbers 1-992 and L-497, respectively opposite to 6 
and 5.', inches ; the diameter of the journal should consequently bo 
between these — say about f>'<! inches. 



= 155. 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



TABLE OF DIAMETERS FOR SHAFT JOURNALS, CALCULATED WITH REFERENCE TO TORSIONAL STRAIN. 



Diameter 


Journals of Cast-iron Shafts. 


Journals of Wrou^ht-Iron Shafts. 


Inches. 


First Movers. 


Second Movers. 


Third Movers. 


First Movers. 


Second Movers. 


Third Movers. 


1 

i 


3352-000 
419000 


1568-000 
206-000 


848-000 
106000 


1981-200 
249-000 


1072-000 
134-000 


540-800 
67-600 


i* 


124-133 


61-037 


31-408 


73-778 


39-704 


20-030 


2 


52-375 


25-750 


13-250 


31-125 


16-750 


8-450 


2i 


26-816 


13190 


6-790 


15-872 


8-576 


4-327 


3 


15-519 


7-630 


3-922 


9-222 


4-963 


2-504 


34 


9-773 


4-805 


2-475 


5-808 


3123 


1-577 


4 

44 

5 


6-547 
4-598 
3352 


3-219 
2-266 
1-648 


1-656 

1163 

•848 


3-891 
2-732 
1-992 


2-094 
1-475 
1-072 


1-563 
•742 
•541 


54 

6 


2-519 
1-940 


1-239 
■954 


•637 
•491 


1-497 
1-153 


•806 
•620 


•406 
•313 


6* 


1-526 


•750 


■386 


•906 


•488 


■246 


7 


1-222 


•601 


•309 


•726 


•391 


•197 


7* 


1-002 


•493 


•253 


■595 


•325 


•162 


8 
8| 


•838 
•682 


■402 
•335 


•207 
•173 


•487 
•405 


•261 

•218 


•130 
•110 


9 
9h 


•575 

•489 


•282 
■240 


■145 
•124 


•341 
•290 


•184 
•156 


•093 
•079 


10 


•419 


■206 


•106 


■249 


•134 


•068 


104 
11 

m 

12 


•362 
■314 
•275 
■242 


•178 
•155 
•135 
•119 


•092 
•079 
•069 
•061 


•215 
•187 

•163 
•144 


•116 
•101 

•089 
•078 


•058 
•051 

•044 
•039 


124 
13 


•214 
■191 


•105 
•094 


•054 
•049 


■127 
•114 


•068 
•061 


•034 
•031 


134. 

14 

14* 

15 


•170 
•153 
•137 
•124 


•084 
•075 
•067 
•061 


•043 
•038 
•035 
•031 


•101 
•091 
■082 

■074 


•054 
•049 
•044 
•039 


•027 
•024 
•022 
■020 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 



Second Example. — We require to ascertain the diameter proper 
for the journals of a shaft of the second class, intended to trans- 
mit a force, equal to 15 horse power, at the rate of 40 revolutions 
per minute. 

Here, 

A-5— 

This quotient lies between the numbers 3-219 and 2-266 in the 
third column, and between 3-123 and 2-094 in the sixth. It follows, 
then, that if the shaft is to be of cast-iron, its journals must be 
between 4 and 44 inches in diameter ; or, if it is to be of wrought- 
iron, between 34. and 4 inches, there being about half an inch of 
difference between the two materials in this instance. 

Third Example. — A shaft, intended for a third mover, is to 
transmit a force equal to 6 horse power, at a velocity of 50 revo- 
lutions per minute, what should be the diameter of its journals in 
cast or wrought4ron ? 
R 



Here, 



p=^= 8-333. 



This number, in the third column, lies between 13-25 and 6-79; 
therefore the diameter for cast-iron should be between 2 and 2 J, 
say, 2f inches. For wro right-iron the diameter should be 2 
inches, as the number, 8-45, opposite to this in the seventh column, 
almost coincides with the quotient above obtained. 

The length of the journals and their bearings should always be 
greater than their diameter. For large sizes, it should be l'2d 
to 1*4(2, and for smaller sizes, V5d to 2d. Thus, the length of a 
wrought-iron journal, 1-5 inches in diameter, should be from 
(1-5 x 1-5 =) 2-25 to (1-6 x 2 =) 3 inches. 

When shafts have to resist both a torsional and a lateral or 
transverse strain, the diameter of their journals should be determined 
with reference to that strain which is the greatest, or which of 
itself would require the greatest dimensions. 

When shafts are not of any great length — 3 to 6 feet, for 
example — their diameter need not be above a tenth greater than 
that of their journals. Solid cast-iron shafts of above six feet in 
length should have a diameter one-fifth, or even one-fourth greater 
than that of their journals. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



49 



FRICTION OF SURFACES IN CONTACT. 

162. Friction is the resistance which one surface offers to 
another — moving or sliding on it. Friction may be distinguished 
as sliding friction, and the friction of rotation. The former is that 
which arises from the simple rubbing of one surface upon another ; 
"the latter, from the rotation of one surface upon another. 

The friction caused by the rubbing of plane surfaces is inde- 
pendent of the extent of surface or velocity of movement ; it 
depends essentially on the weight of the body, or, more accurately, 
the pressure binding the two surfaces together. It may therefore 
be said, that the friction is in proportion to the pressure. 

Similarly, the friction of a journal in its bearings is independent 
of the length of these, but is proportional to the diameter and to 
the pressure. 

We give tables for each of these classes of friction, indicating 
the ratio of the friction to the pressure, and consisting of a series 
of coefficients, whereby the pressure must be multiplied in order 
to ascertain the amount of resistance due to friction. 

Table of the Ratios of Friction for Plane Surfaces. 



Description of Materials 


Disposition 
of the Fibres. 


Condition 
of the Surfaces. 


Ratio of Friction 
to Pressure. 


At In 
Starting. Motion. 


' 


Parallel. 

Do. j 

Across. 

Do. 

Endwise 

(on one piece). 

ParaUel. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Flat or on edge. 
| Flat. 


Dry. 

Lubricated with 

dry soap. 

Dry. 

Wet with water. 

( Dry. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Wet with water, 
J Do. 
) Oiled or greased. 

Dry. 

Do. 
Do. 


I 


62 

44 

44 
71 

43 

38 
53 
80 
62 
65 
62 
12 
47 
28 
16 
19 


•48 
•16 
•34 




■25 
•19 


Ash, beech, or deal on oak, . . 


•38 
•52 
•49 
•22 


Pump leather on cast-iron,. . . 

1 on cast-iron pulleys, . . . 
Cast-iron on cast-iron, 


•27 

•15 
•19 













Example. — What power is necessary to raise an oaken flood- 
gate weighing 30 lbs., and against which a pressure is exerted 
equal to 700 lbs. ? 

We have 

(•71 x 700 =) 497 + 30 = 527 lbs. at starting, 
and (-2j> x 700 =) \~>b + 30 = 205 when in motion, 

supposing the pressure continues the same. 



Table of the Ratios of Friction for Journals in Bearings. 



Description of Materials. 



Cast or wrought-iron journals, 
in cast or wrought-iron, brass, 
or gun-metal bearings, 



Cast-iron in cast-iron 



Cast-iron in brass or gun-metal, [■ 



Cast-iron in lignum vite, - 



"Wrought-iron in brass or gun- 
metal 



Wrought-iron in lignumvitse, 



Condition of the 
Surfaces. 



Lubricated with 
or lard, 



oil 



Similarly lubricated 
and wetwithwater 

Lubricated with or- 
dinary oil, and wet 
with water, 

Greased, 

Greased and wet, 

Unlubricated, ....... 

Lubricated with oil and 
lard, 

Lubricated with a pre- 
paration of lard and 
plumbago, 

Greased 

Greased and wet 

Badly lubricated, 

Lubricated with oil and 
lard 

Lubricated with ordi- 
nary oil, 



Ratio of Fric- 
tion to Pres- 
sure, with re- 
gular Lubrica- 
tion. 



•07 to -08 

•08 

•14 

■16 
•19 
•18 

•10 



•14 
•09 
•19 
•25 

•11 

•19 



Rule. — To determine the frictional pressure, f, acting on the 
bearings of a journal, always bearing in mind the weight of the 
shaft and the gear carried by it, the power transmitted, as also the 
resisting load : Multiply the product of these, p, by the coefficient, c, 
to obtain the amount of friction; next multiply this by tlie constant 
•08, and by the diameter d., in inches, {or by -08c?.,) to obtain the 
amount per revolution ; and, finally, multiply this by the number of 
revolutions in a minute, which will give the amount of power con- 
sumed by friction during this unit of lime. 

Example. — What amount of power, A, is absorbed by the 
friction of the journals of a cast-iron shaft revolving in bearings ; 
also, of cast-iron, under the following conditions 1 

The diameter at the journals = 5 inches. 

The pressure of the shaft and gear = 20,000 lbs. 

The velocity = 5 revolutions per minute. 

According to the table, the coefficient, c, is - 075. 

Here we have — 

F = -08 d x c x P, 
= -08 x 5 x -075 x 20,000 = 3,000 lbs. 



CHAPTER rV. 
THE INTERSECTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES, WITH APPLICATIONS. 



1G3. Nowhere is descriptive geometry more useful, in its appli- 
cation to the industrial arts, than in the determination of the linos 
of intersection, or junction, of the various solids, whether the in- 
tersection bo that of two similar solids with each other, as a 
tylinder with a cylinder ; or of dissimilar ones, as a cylinder with 



a sphere or a cone. With the aid, however, of this branch of 
geometry, we can determine, in the most exact manner, the pro- 
portions of all the curves — of double as of single curvature — which 
may bo produced by tlio intersections of surfaces ol' revolution, 
the constructive or generative data of which are known. 

a 



50 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



The applications of forms in which such curves occur are exceed- 
ingly numerous; they abound in the works of the brazier, the 
tinsmith, the joiner, the carpenter, the builder, and the architect, 
as well as in all descriptions of machinery. This treatise would, 
indeed, be incomplete, were we not to render the delineation of 
these curves quite familiar to the student Intimately connected 
also with this branch of the subject, is the development of curved 
surfaces ; that is, the determination of the dimensions of such 
surfaces when extended in a plane, so that the workman may be 
able to cut out such pieces with the certainty of their taking the 
form, and fitting the place assigned for them. 

The study of projections, moreover, comprises the methods of 
delineation of such curves as helices, spirals, and serpentines, 
which frequently occur in mechanical and architectural con- 
struction. 



THE INTERSECTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF 
CALENDERS AND CONES. 

PLATE XTV. 

PIPES AST) BOILERS. 

164. The intersections of cylindrical or conical surfaces may 
be curves of either single or double curvature. A curve is said 
to possess a double curvature, when it is not situated wholly in one 
plane. The problem to be considered in representing the lines of 
intersection, reduces itself to the determination in succession of the 
projections of several points in the curve, and the completion, by 
tracing the projections of the entire curves through the points 
thus found. The principle generally to be followed in these cases 
is, to imagine the two cylinders, for instance, to be cut by one and 
the same plane — their intersection in that plane being a point in 
the line sought. Thus, to obtain a point in the line of intersection 
of two right cylinders, a and b, represented in figs. 1 and 2, draw 
any plane, c d, parallel to the axes of both cylinders. This plane 
cuts the vertical cylinder, a, as projected horizontally in the points, 
e' f. and as projected vertically through the lines, e 1 e 2 , and/ 1 / 2 . 
The horizontal cylinder, b, is cut in c d in the horizontal projection, 
and in c' d' in the vertical projection, which latter is obtained as 
follows : — The semi-base, g i, of the cylinder, b, is drawn in plan 
as in fig. 1*; then prolonging c d until it cuts this plan in c 2 , it will 
give the distance, c 2 ft, of the cutting plane from the a v is of the 
cylinder : this distance is then transferred to i d, fig. 2. and through 
c the line, c d', is drawn as required. The points, e 2 , f 2 , of 
intersection of this line, c' «f, with the lines, e 1 e 2 ,/ 1 / 2 , are points 
in the intersecting line respectively on each side of the vertical 
cylinder, a. 

By repeating this operation with another plane, as m n, parallel 
to the first, other two points will obviously be found, as I 2 and o 2 . 
The extreme points, a 1 , k', are naturally determined by the inter- 
section of the outlines of the c^inders. As for the point, b', it is 
found by means of the imaginary plane, g p, tangential to the ver- 
tical cylinder, a, and also to the horizontal one, b, when, as in this 
case, the two are of equal diameter. 



As many points having been found as constitute a sufficient 
guide, according to the scale or size of the drawing, and the pro- 
portion between the intersecting solids, their reunion into on' 
continuous line completes the delineation of the curve of intersec- 
tion. It will be observed that, in fig. 2, the vertical projection of 
this curve is a straight line, as a' V, or V k', these two being dt 
right angles to each other ; this results from the fact, that the 
cylinders, a and b, chosen for this illustration are of equal diameter, 
and have their axes situate in the same plane, and at right angles 
to each other, in such a manner that the curves of intersection, 
which are elliptical, he in a plane at right angles to the plane of 
the vertical projection. It follows, then, that this peculiarity being 
known, all that is necessary in similar cases — that is, when two 
equal right cylinders, having their axes in the same plane, cut each 
other — is simply to draw lines from the extreme points, a' and k', 
to the summit, &', the projection of the point of intersection of 
their axes — the operations above described being, in such cases, 
altogether dispensed with. 

165. When the cylinders are of unequal diameters, the curve 
of intersection becomes one of double curvature, notwithstanding 
that the axes of the cylinders may lie in the same plane. Thus, 
figs. 7 and 8, which represent two intersecting cylinders, a and b, 
of very different magnitudes, show that the curve of intersection, 
ct V V, drawn according to the method before given, is one of 
double curvature, becoming the more flattened at V, according 
as the diameters of the cylinders differ more. To render it quite 
plain that the operation is the same, we have indicated the 
various points obtained, by the same letters which mark the cor- 
responding points in figs. 1 and 2. We must further remark, 
that in figs. 7 and 8 the curve is determined with the assistance 
of two elevations, taken at right angles to each other; whilst, in 
figs. 1 and 2, an elevation and a plan were employed, similarly, at 
right angles to each other. 

We show the application or exemplification of this curve in 
figs. 4 and 5, which represent a steam-engine boiler, c, seen partly 
in elevation and partly in section. The tubular piece, d, which 
is a species of man-hole, is supposed to be cylindrical, and is 
attached to the body of the boiler by means of a flange, which 
gives rise to the external intersectional curves, a b, c d, and the 
internal one. ef. 

THE rSTEESECTIOX OF A COSE WITH A SPHEEE. 

166. Whenever a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its bi- 
section presents an outline similar to that of the base ; then, when 
the cone under consideration is a right cone of a circular base, all 
such parallel sections are circles. Thus, in figs. 3 and 3*, repre- 
senting a right cone, a' b' s', the plane, a' b', parallel to its base, 
a' b', cuts the cone so as to present a circle, of which the diameter 
is exactly contained within the extreme generatrices, a' s', b 7 s'. 
If, then, with the centre, s, and radius, ss = « &'-f- 2, we describe 
a circle, it will be the outline of that part of the cone intercepted 
by the cutting plane. 

The section of a sphere, c, by any plane whatever, is also a 
circle. When this cutting plane, a' b', for instance, is perpen- 
dicular to the plane of projection, it is necessarily projected as a 
straight line, as in fig. 3*, and as a circle, as in fig. 3, in the plane 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



51 



of projection to which it is parallel. It follows, from the existence 
of these respective properties, that we have at hand a very simple 
method for determining the curve of intersection of a cone with a 
sphere, whatever may be the relative position of their axes. This 
method consists in supposing a series of parallel planes to cut 
both the cone and the sphere, so as to produce circular sections 
of both — the intersections of the outlines of which will conse- 
quently be points in the curve sought, as indicated in fig. 3. 

The intersection, a 1 b', is a circle, the diameter of which is limited 
by the extreme generatrices, s' a', s' b, of the cone, where they 
encounter the great circle of the sphere, c. The same method 
holds good when the cone is cut by any plane, a' g, inclined to the 
base, the outline of the section being in this case an ellipse, which 
is projected in the plan, fig. 3, by the line, a i" g' n', the resultant 
of the various intersections in the planes adopted in the construc- 
tion and obtainment of the curve. 

The same occurs with the intersection of a cone, a' b' s', with a 
cylinder, a'b'df; and when their axes lie in the same straight 
line, the intersection, a' b', is also a circle, the diameter of which 
is equal to that of the cylinder. 

167. If their axes are parallel, though not in the same straight 
line, the intersection of these two surfaces becomes a curve of 
double curvature, which may be determined either according to 
the method adopted in reference to figs. 1 and 3, or by supposing 
a series of planes to cut the cone parallel to its base, and conse- 
quently at right angles to the generatrix lines of the cylinder; by 
tliis means circular sections will be produced, those of the cylinder 
being always the same, but those of the cone varying according to 
the distance of the planes from its apex. The points of intersec- 
tion of the various circles representing, respectively, sections of 
the cone and cylinder, will be points in the curve of intersection 
sought. 

DEVELOPMENTS. 

168. By this term is meant the unrolling, extending, or flatten- 
ing out upon a plane, of any curved surface, in order to ascertain 
its exact superficial measurement. 

The more generally used surfaces or forms which are capable 
of development in this manner, are — the cylinder, the cone, prisms, 
pyramids, and the frusta, or fragments of these solids. 

Tin and copper-smiths and boiler-makers, who operate upon 
metals which come into their hands in the form of thin sheets, 
have continually to transform these sheets into objects which are 
analogous in form to these solids. 

To do then work with skill and exactitude, and not by mere 
guess, and also to avoid the cutting of the material to waste, they 
should make plans of the whole or part of the object as finished, 
so that they may calculate the exact development of the surface, 
both as to form and size, and cut it at once from the sheet of 
metal with all possible precision. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CYLINDER. 

169. Here, taking fig. 2, which wc have on a former occasion 
considered as a couple of solid cylinders, to represent, in the 
present case, two pipes or hollow cylinders formed of thin sheet 
metal, let us set about ascertaining what should be the shape and 
size of the pieces of metal as extended out flit, of which these 



two cylinders are to be formed. It is to be observed, in the first 
place, that the rectification or development into a straight line of 
a circle, is equal to its diameter multiplied by 3-1416, &c; whence 
the development of the base, p q, of the right vertical cylinder, a. . 
fig. 2, of which the diameter measures -322 metres, is obviously 
equal to -322 x 3-1416 = 1-012 m. 

This length, then, 1-012 m., is set off on the line, M M, fig. 10, 
and the circumference having been divided into a number of equal 
parts, as was done to obtain the curve of intersection of the two 
cylinders in fig. 1 ; the line, m m, is divided into the like number 
of equal divisions. Through each of these points of division, 
perpendiculars are erected upon the line, M M, representing so 
many generatrix lines corresponding to those of the cylinder, a, 
fig. 2 ; and for the sake of greater intelligibility, we have marked 
the corresponding lines by the same letters. Next, on each of 
these are set off distances, m b', e' e 2 , 1' I 2 , p a',ff 2 , o' o 2 , Q k', &c., 
equal to the respective distances in fig. 2. By tliis means are 
obtained the points, b', e', I', &c, in fig. 10, through which the curve 
passes which forms the contour of intersection corresponding to that 
portion of the semi-cylinder, b' a b", fig. 1, which is intersected by 
the horizontal cylinder, b; and as the other half of the cylinder is 
precisely the same, the curve has simply to be repeated, as shown 
in fig. 10. 

It is unnecessary to detail the method of finding this develop- 
ment of the horizontal cylinder, b, as it is identical in principle 
to that just discussed. 

It may be gathered from the above exemplification, that the 
principle generally to be followed in obtaining the development of 
cylindrical surfaces, is, first, to unfold it in a direction at right 
angles to one of its generatrices, or in the direction the generatrix 
takes in the construction of the solid, and then to set oft' from the 
straight line thus produced, at equal distances apart, any number 
of distances previously obtained from the projections of the out- 
line or line of intersection when the cylinder is joined to another, 
or of its section when cut by any plane. The curve of this out- 
line is finally obtained by tracing a line through the extremities 
of the generatrices, drawn perpendicular to the base. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF* THE CONE. 

170. As in the case of the cylinder, so likewise, in order to find 
the development of the cone, do we unfold it, as it were, in the 
direction of motion of its generatrix. Now, as all the generatrices 
of a right cono are equal, and converge to ono point, the apex, it 
follows that, when the conical surface is developed upon a plane, 
these generatrices will form radii of a portion of a circle ; conse- 
quently, if with ono of the generatrices, as a radius, we describe 
a circle, and cut off as much of the circumference as shall i„. equal 
to that of the baso of tho developed cone, wo shall obtain .t 
sector of a circle equal in area to the lateral surface ^' the con©, as 
developed upon a plane. 

Fig. 9 represents tho development of the frustum, or truncated 
cone, a' b>, a' b', as projected in tig. 3\ and of which tho apex 
would ho s', were the cone entire. Tho operation is as fol- 
lows: — 

Wo shall suppose the cone to he developed in tho direction 
taken by tho generatrix, s' a', tig. 3*: therefore, with a radius eo.ua! 



52 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



to s' .-. :a the centre, s', describe the fragment of a circle, 

a' b' a 2 , fig. 9. 

Having divided the circular base, a b, fig. 3, of the cone into 
eome arbitrary number of equal parts, say 16, and having drawn 
the respective generatrices. 1 s, 2 s. 3 s. &e.. set off on the arc, 
a' b' a", fig. 9, an equal number of arcs, each equal to the respec- 
tive arcs obtained by the subdivision of the circle, a b, fig. 3. 
From the points thus obtained, 1' 2' 3', &c, fig. 9, draw the radii, 
1' s', 2' s', 3' s, &e, representing generatrices corresponding to 
those projected in fig. 3. 

By this operation we obtain the development of the entire cone, 
and find that it produces the figure s' a' b' a 2 , fig. 9, the circular 
perimeter of which is equal to tfcat of the base of the cone itsen. 
The cone, however, under consideration, is divided by a plane, a' V, 
fig. 3, parallel to its base, •which reduces it to a frustum of a cone ; 
the development of the conical surface of which is equal to the 
space contained between the arc, a' b' a 2 , corresponding to the 
base of the cone, as just determined, and the arc, a c b, of lesser 
radius, drawn with the same centre, s', and with a radius equal to 
the generatrix, s' a', of the portion of the cone taken away. 

The development, then, of the truncated cone, is the fragment of 
an annular space, distinsruished in fig. 9 by a flat tinted shade. 

171. In the case of a truncated cone, of which the dividing plane 
is inclined to the base, as a' g, fig. 3*, instead of being parallel, or 
if the cone is joined to a cylindrical or spherical body, and the line 
of intersection is curved in any way, the development of this edge 
of the conical surface will no longer take the form of the are, a c b, 
fig. 9. Its true representation will be obtainable by setting off, on 
the several radii, fig. 9, lengths corresponding to the respective 
generatrices as intercepted by the plane, or curve, of intersection. 
In order to obtain the lengths of the respective generatrices, which 
can be done from the vertical projection, fig. 3", each intermediate 
one, as 4' i, &c., must be squared across to an extreme one, as at 
a' t', and indicated by the horizontal lines ; this will give the exact 
length of each — being otherwise, as projected, considerably fore- 
shortened. Thus, the division of the cone by the inclined plane, 
a' g, fig. 3*. produces an ellipse, the development of which, in fig. 9, 
takes the form of the curve, a i g b. 

In the construction of the boiler, represented in figs. 4 and 5, 
which is formed of several pieces of sheet metal, we shall find 
extensive applications of the principles just discussed. It must be 
borne in mind that, in caleularing the development, or the size and 
shape of the component pieces, an allowance must be made for the 
lap of the pieces over each other, for the purpose of joining them 
together, as indicated in the drawing. 

172. In cylindrical steam boilers, the extremities are generally 
constructed in the shape of hemispheres — this form offering the 
greatest resistance to internal or external pressure. 

As the sphere cannot be developed upon a plane, these hemi- 
spherical ends cannot be made in a single piece, unless cast or 
forged. In practice this difficulty is overcome, by for ming this 
portion in from 5 to 8 gores, according to the size of the boiler, 
these being surmounted by a central cap-piece. After being cut 
out, these several pieces are hammered to give them the necessary 
sphericity. 

In fig. 6, we give a practical method of approximately detennining 



the development of one of such gores; this consists in drawing 
with the centre, o, an arc, m n, corresponding to the radius of the 
hemisphere. On this arc, from m to n, set off the circular length 
of the gore ; set off, also, the length, p q, corresponding to one of 
the six divisions, as seen in the end view, fig. 5. On the arc, m n, 
fig. 6, mark an arbitrary number of points, at equal distances 
asunder, as 1, 2. 3, 4, 5 : draw through these horizontal lines, cut- 
ting the vertical, m (/, thereby giving the various radii, o 1', o 1 2', 
(/ 3\ &c, with which arcs are drawn as indicated; the rectifica- 
tion, or development, of these arcs, contained between the radii, 
p </, g o', are then obtained, and transferred to perpendiculars 
drawn through the points, 1', 2', 3', &x.. on the line, o 1 n', which is 
the rectification, or development, of the are. m n, with its series of 
divisions. Thus, from the arc, p q. is obtained the line, p' q, and 
similarly the entire figure, pf ri q', which is an approximation to 
the surface of the gore, as supposed to be flattened out. The 
necessary allowance for lap is superadded, as shown by the flat 
tinting in the drawing, fig. 6. The gore cut to this outline in sheet 
metal is then hammered to a proper form upon a mandril, or 
anvil, with a spherical surface. 



THE DELINEATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF HELICES, 
SCREWS, .AND SERPENTINES. 

PLATE XT. 
HELICES. 

173. That curve is called a cylindrical helix, which may be 
said to be generated by a point caused to travel round a cylinder, 
having, at the same time, a motion in the direction of the length 
of the cylinder — this longitudinal motion bearing some regular 
prescribed proportion to the circular or angular motion. The dis- 
tance between any two points which are nearest to each other, 
and in the same straight line parallel to the axis of the cylinder, 
is called the pilch — in other words, the longitudinal distance tra- 
versed by the generating point during one revolution. 

This definition at once suggests a method of drawing the 
lateral projection of this curve, when the two projections of the 
. ler and the pitch are known. This method consists in 
dividing the circumference of the base of the cylinder into any 
number of equal parts, and drawing parallels to the axis through 
the points of division projected on the vertical plane ; at the same 
time a portion of the axis, equal to the pitch, must be divided 
into the like number of equal parts, and as many lines must be 
drawn perpendicular to the axis. The intersections of the cor- 
responding lines of each set will be points in the curve. 

Let a and a', figs. 1 and 2, be the horizontal and vertical pro- 
jections of a right cylinder, and a 1 — a 2 the length of the pitch of 
the helix, generated by the traverse, as already defined, of the 
point projected in a and a'. 

The circle described with the radius, a o, and representing the 
base of the cylinder, is divided into 12 equal parts, starting from 
the point, a. Through each of the points thus obtained, a ver- 
tical line is drawn. The pitch, a 1 a 2 , is similarly divided into 12 
equal parts, and a corresponding number of horizontal lines are 
drawn to cut the vertical ones in the points, 1', 2', 3', &c. ; these 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



53 



points are next connected by the continuous line, a', 1', 3', 6', 9', 
a 2 , which forms the vertical or lateral projection of the helix. 

Half of this curve is indicated by a sharp full line, as being on 
the front surface, a, 3, 6, of the cylinder, whilst the other half is 
in dotted lines, representing the portion of the curve which is on 
the other side, a, 9, 6. 

The number of divisions of the circumference of the cylinder 
is a matter of indifference as regards the accurate delineation of 
the curve, and it is therefore natural to choose a number that 
calls for the simplest operations — an even number, for example, 
as 6, 8, or 12; and in the present instance, wherein the starting 
point, a, lies in the horizontal diameter, a 6, of the base, it will 
be observed that two points occur in the same vertical line, as 
2 — 10, which gives the points, 2', 10', in the vertical projection. 

The operations will be similar, if the given starting point be 
diametrically opposite to <z, as £', the pitch, b 1 b 2 , being equal to 
«' a 2 . 

174. The conical helix is different from the cylindrical one, 
simply in that it is described on the surface of a cone instead 
of on that of a cylinder, and the operation consequently differs 
very slightly from the one before described; the horizontal and 
vertical projections of the cone are given, and also the pitch. 
Fig. 3 is the vertical projection of a truncated cone, c, the bases 
of which, a' b', c' d', are represented in the plan, fig. 1, by the 
concentric circles described, with the respective radii, a o and c o. 
The outer circle having been divided as already shown, radii are 
drawn to the centre, o, from all the points of division, 1, 2, 3, 
&c, which cut the inner circle in the points, e,f, g, &c. These 
points are then projected upon the upper base, c' d', in fig. 3, those 
on the outer circle being similarly projected on the lower base, 
a' b' ; the respective points in each base are next joined, thus forming 
a series of generatrices of the cone, as l 2 — e 2 , 2 2 —f 2 , o 1 — o 2 , &c, 
which would all converge in the apex, if the cone were complete. 
These lines are cut by horizontals drawn through a corresponding 
number of divisions in the length of the given pitch, a' c', and the 
points of intersection thus obtained lie in the curve which it is 
required to draw. The horizontal projection of the curve is then 
obtained by letting fall from the points of intersection last 
obtained, a series of verticals which cut the respective radii in the 
plan, fig. 1. This produces a species of spiral, or volute, e 3 ,/ 3 , g 3 , 
h 3 , 2 3 , &c. By following out the same principles, helices may be 
represented as lying upon spheres, or any other surfaces of revo- 
lution. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HELIX. 

175. It will be recollected that a cylinder, and also a cone, are 
capable of being developed upon a plane surface, and that the 
base of either, when rectified, or converted into a straight line, is 
equal to the diameter multiplied by 3-1416. Let, then, a 6, fig. 
4, be a portion of the development of the base of the cylinder, 
a, figs. 1 and 2; to obtain the development of the helix drawn 
upon this cylinder, we must first divide it off into lengths, corre- 
sponding and equal to the arcs obtained by the division of the 
circle, a o. On each of the divisions Ihus obtained, as 1, 2, 3, 
&<'.., we then erect perpendiculars, making them equal respectively 
to the distances from the starting point, a, of the several divisions 



of the pitch. The extremities of these perpendiculars, as 1', 2', 
3', &c, will be found to lie in the same straight line, a 6', which 
consequently represents the development of a portion of the 
helix. In general, the development of a helix is a straight line, 
forming the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, the base of 
which is equal to the circumference of the cylinder, and the 
height to the pitch of the helix. 

Several helices drawn upon the same cylinder, and havmg the 
same pitch, or a helix which makes several convolutions about a 
cylinder, is represented by a series of parallel curves, the distance 
between which, measured on any line parallel to the axis, is 
always equal to the pitch. 

The development of the conical helix may be obtained by means 
of an operation analogous to that employed for the development 
of the cone (Plate XIV.) ; and in this case the result will be a 
curve, instead of a straight line. 

We meet with numerous applications of the helical curve in the 
arts, for all descriptions of screws ; and staircases, and serpentines. 

SCREWS. 

176. Screws are employed in machinery, and in mechanical 
combinations, either for securing various pieces to each other, so 
as to produce contact pressure, or for communicating motion. 
Screws are formed with triangular, square, or rounded threads or 
fillets. 

A screw is said to have a triangular thread, when it is generated 
by a triangle, isosceles or not, the three angles of which describe 
helices about the same given axis, situate in the same plane as the 
triangle. Figs. 5 and 5" represent the projections of a triangular- 
threaded screw*, such as would be generated by the helical move- 
ment of the triangle, a' b' c', of which the apex, a', is situate on 
a cylinder of a radius equal to a o, and of which the other angles, 
b 1 , c', are both situate on the internal cylinder, having the radius, 
b o, which is called the core of the screw, and is concentric with 
the first, The difference, a b, between the radii, a o and b o, indi- 
cates the depth of the thread. 

When, as in the case taken for illustration, the screw is single- 
threaded, the pitch is equal to the distance between the two points, 
b' and c' ; that is, to the base of the triangle. The screw is one of 
2, 3, 4, or 5 threads, according as the pitch is equal to 2, 3, 4, or 
5 times the base of the generating triangle. From what has 
already been discussed, the method of delineating the triangular- 
threaded screw will be easily comprehended; for all that is neces- 
sary is to draw the helices, generated by the three angular points, 
in the manner shown in reference to figs. 1 and 2. We have, 
notwithstanding, given the entire operation for one semi-convolu- 
tion of the thread, in figs. 5 and 5*. When one of the curves, as 
a' 3' 6', is obtained, it is repeated as many times as there are con 
volutions of the thread on the length of the screw. To do thi» 
with facility, and without repeating the entire operation, it is 
customary to cut out a pattern of the curve in hard card-board, 
or, by preference, in veneer wood ; then setting this pattern to the 

points of division, </' c'/', previously set txff, the curves are easily 

drawn parallel io one another. The same may be dime with iho> 
inner helical curves. 

It must be observed, that, to complete the outline of the screw, 



04 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



these various curves require to be joined by the portions, V «?, d' i', 
which, though in fig. 5* they are drawn as simple straight lines, 
should, if it is wished to be precise, be shown by lines slightly 
curved and tangential to the curves passing through the points, a 
and V, as in fig. 5\ These curves are the result of a series of 
helices, traced by the component points of the lines forming the 
sides, a' b 1 , a? d, of the generating triangle. In practice, this m 
is disregarded, and simple straight lines are emp. 

177. A screw is termed square-threaded when it is generated 
by a square or by a rectangle, the parallel sides of which lie in 
right concentric cylinders, and the angles or corners of which 
describe he&ees about the axes of these cylinders. Figs. 6 and 6*, 
represent projections of a square-threaded screw — the thread being 
generated by the square, d c VS. The horizontal side, a d, 
determines the depth. The height, a 1 d, marks the width of the 
thread, and d' c is the width of the interval, which is generally 
equal to that of the thread. 

When the screw is single-threaded, the pitch, d e, is equal to 
the sum of the widths of ihe thread and of the interval, or, in the 
case before us, to twice the side of the square. Of course, when 
tiie pitch is equal to 2. 3, or 4 times a 1 e, the screw is 2, 3, or 4- 
threaded, in all cases having as many intervals as threads. The 
operations called for in delineating the screw of a single square 
thread, are fully indicated upon the figures. The delineation of a 
screw of several threads does not possess any additional points of 
difiiculty. 

DTTEE5AI. SCEEWS. 

173. An internal screw, or nut, is a screw in intaglio, cored out 
of a solid body — instead of being in relief, and having the material 
cut away from it — in such a manner that its more indented portions 
correspond to the more elevated portions of the common or 
external screw, whilst the more indented portions of the iattez 
correspond to the more elevated portions of the former. In order 
to represent the helical fillets or threads of the internal screw, it is 
necessary to section it by a plane passing through its axis : it is in 
this manner that we have represented the nuts, m n p q, in figs. 
5* and 6*, the first having a triangular thread fitting to and embrac- 
ing the screw, d, which is represented as just introduced into it ; 
the other has a square thread similarly adapted to the screw, e. 

It follows, from these nuts being represented in section, that we 

only see the half of each corresponding to the posterior portion -of 

their respective screws, d and e ; and in consequence, of this, the 

. al curves are inclined in the opposite direction to those repre- 

mmSna the anterior portions of the screws. 

Those screws are distinguished as right-handed screws, of which 
the thread in relief rises from the left to the right, as in the screws, 
d, z : and as left-handed when the thread takes the direction from 
right to left — that is, for example, in the direction taken by the 
enrves representing the nuts, p. & 

SEEPZ?rnri5. 

170. Serpentine is the name given in practice to a pipe or tube 
bent to the helicoidal form: but, in geometry, it is the term given 
to the solid generated by a sphere, the centre of which traces a 
helkoidal path. 



This form is often employed, whether hollow, as for pipes, such 
as the worm of a distilling apparatus, or solid, as for metal springs. 

The first thing to be done in delineating this solid, is to deter- 
mine the helix traced by the centre of the generating sphere, its 
pitch, and the radius of the cylinder on which it runs, being given. 
The helix having been drawn, a series of circles are described with 
the radius of the sphere, and with various points of the eurves as 
centres ; curves drawn tangential to these circles, will then form the 
outline of the object. FLrs. 7 and 7* represent the plan and ele- 
vation of a serpentine formed in this manner. The circle drawn 
with the radius, a o, is the base of the cylinder, on which lies the 
helix generated by the traverse of the point projected Yertka 
a'. Next is given the radius, a' b 1 , of the generating sphere, and 
the pitch, a 1 a 2 , of the helix. This helix is then projected accord- 
ing to the operation indicated on the drawing, and al 
described, by the curve, a 1 , 1', 2', 6", y, and a 2 : it may be con- 
tinued ind _ -cording to the number of convolutic : 
With different points of this curve as the radius, 
a b'. are then described a series of cL dee p . ::y near to each other, 
and two curves are drawn tangential to these, as shown on fig '.'. 

In going over this -figure with ink, it is of importance to limit 
these curves to the portion of the outline, which is quite apparent 
or distinct ; thus, for the anterior portion, a, 1. 2, 3, 6, fig. 7, of the 
serpentine, the lower curve, c efg, ends at the point of contact, c, 
with the circle whose centre b --. wb3sf the upper one, h i d. ends 
in the point, d, on the circle described with the centre, 6'. The 
posterior portions of these curves are limited by the points, g and i, 
where the bend of the serpentine goes behind, and is hid by the 
anterior pc:: n 

The horizontal projection of the serpentine is always comprised 
within two concentric circles, the distance asunder of which is 
equal to the diameter of the generating sphere, as in fig. 7. 

Fig. 7 2 represents a tubular serpentine, which is supposed to be 
divided by a plane, 1 — 2, in fig. 7, passing through its axis. It is, 
consequently, the posterior portions that are visible, and they are 
inclined from right to left ; the section at the same time shows the 
thickness of the tube, or pipe. 

In the arts, we also see serpentines, both solid and hollow, 
generated by conic or other helices; of this ieaeriptkm are the 
springs employed in the moderator lamps, and the forms of (fetiL 
lery worms are sometimes varied in this way. 

180. Observation. — The enrves representing the outline of screws 
and serpentines, the rigorously exact delineation of which we have 
just explained, are considerably modified when these objects come 
to be represented on a very small scale: thus the triangular- 
threaded screw may be represented, as shown in fig. 8, by i aeries 
of parallel straight, instead of curved, lines — these being inclined 
from side to side to the extent of half the pitch. These lines 
should be limited by two parallels to the axis on each side, mark- 
ing the amount of relief of the thread. When the scale of the 
drawing is stfll smaller, and greater simplicity desirable, the 
draughtsman is content with a series of parallel lines, as in fig. 9, 
limited by a single line on each side parallel to the axis. 

For the square-threaded screw, the helical curves may similarly 
be replaced by straight lines, as in fig. 10. The same also applies 
to the serpentine, as shown in fig. 11. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



55 



THE APPLICATION OF THE HELIX. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A STAIRCASE. 

PLATE XVI. 

181. The staircases, which afford a means of communication 
between the various floors of houses, are constructed after various 
systems, the greater number of which comprise exemplifications 
of the helix. The cage, or space set apart for the staircase, varies 
in form with the locality. It may be rectangular, circular, or 
elliptic. 

Figs. 1 and 2 represent a staircase, the cage of which is rec- 
tangular; this space being provided for the construction of the 
main frame of the stair, with its steps and balustrade, and with a 
central space left sufficient for the admission of light from above. 
In the case of a cylindrical cage, the curve with which the steps 
rise is helical from bottom to top ; but in a staircase within a rec- 
tangular cage, the steps rise for some distance in a straight line, 
and only take the helical twist at the part forming the junction 
between the rectilinear portions running up alternate sides of the 
rectangle. Stairs are sometimes made without this curved part, 
a simple platform, or "resting-place," connecting the two side 
portions. 

For the division of the steps, we take the line, efg hi, passing 
through the centre of their width, and taking exactly the direction 
it is intended to give the stairs. The first or lowest step, a, 
which lies on the ground, is generally of stone, and is larger and 
wider than the others. 

For the stairs, as for the helix, the pitch or height, say 3-38 m., 
from the basement to the floor above, is divided into as many 
equal parts as it is wished to have steps. The centre line, efg h i, 
is also divided into a like number of equal parts. In general, the 
number of steps should be such, that the height of each does not 
exceed 19 or 20 centimetres. The larger the staircase is, the 
more may this height be reduced — say, perhaps, as low as 15 or 
16 centimetres. The width, 1 — 2, of the step should not be under 
18 to 20 centimetres. 

If, for example, in the given height of 3-38 m., we wish to make 
21 steps, we must divide this height into 21 equal parts, and draw 
a series of horizontal lines through the points of division, which 
will represent the horizontal surfaces of the steps. 

For those steps which lie parallel to each other, it is simply 
requisite to erect verticals upon the points of division on the 
centre line in the plan. The points of intersection of these with 
the horizontals above, as 1, 2, 3, 4, fig. 2, indicate the edges of these 
steps. For the turning steps, however, or winders, as those steps 
are called which are not parallel to each other, a particular opera- 
tion is necessary, termed the balancing of the steps, the object of 
which is to make the steps as nearly equal in width as possible, 
without, at the same time, making them very narrow on the inner 
edges, or rendering the twist or curve too sharp or sudden. 
Where the stairs are narrow, as in the case we have illustrated, 
the balancing should commenco a step or two before reaching tho 
curved portions. This balancing may bo obtainod in tho follow- 
ing manner : — A part of tho rectilinear portion, p I, equal to three 
steps, is developed, and then a part of tho curved portion, Im n, 



equal to three more steps. On the vertical, t q, fig. 3, set off the 
heights of the first three steps ; and through the point, q, draw 
the horizontal, q 4, representing the development of the widths of 
the steps in a straight line. Also, on the prolongation, I q', of the 
vertical, t q, set off the heights of other three steps. Through the 
point, q', draw a horizontal, and make q' 10 equal to the arc, I m n, 
in the plan, fig. 1, as rectified. The straight line, t 10, will then 
be the development corresponding to the curve of the framepiece. 
At the latter point, n, erect a perpendicular on this line, and at the 
point, 5, a perpendicular to the straight line, t 4. The point of 
intersection, o, of these two perpendiculars, gives the centre of 
the arc, p k n, which is drawn tangentially to these lines. Then, 
through each point of division on the vertical, q q', draw horizon- 
tals, meeting this curve in the points, /, k, I, m, through which 
draw parallels to q q'. Then transfer the respective distances, 
j 6, k t, I 8, m 9, comprised between the arc and the two straight 
lines, t 4 and t u, on the line of the framepiece, p k n, in the plan, 
fig. 1, as at j k, k I, I m, m n. Next, draw straight lines through 
the points,/, k, Z, m, and through the respective points of division, 
6, 7, 8, 9, on the centre line, which will give the proper incli- 
nation for the steps as balanced. The second half of the curved 
portion is obviously precisely the same as the first in plan, and 
may easily be copied from it. 

Having thus determined the position of the steps in the hori- 
zontal projection, they must next be projected on the vertical 
plane, by means of a series of verticals, which cut the respective 
horizontals drawn through the points of division, 1, 2, 3, 4. As 
in fig. 2, the anterior wall of the cage is supposed to be cut away 
by the line, a 6' 10', in the plan, the outer edges of the steps are 
seen and are determined by erecting verticals on the correspond- 
ing points, 6', 7', 8', 9', &c. 

The perpendicular portions, v v', of the steps, which are over- 
hung by the horizontal portions, and consequently invisible in the 
plan, fig. 1, are, nevertheless, indicated there in dotted lines, 
parallel to the edges of the steps. To render them quite distinct, 
however, and at the same time to show the manner in which they 
are fitted into the framepiece, we have represented them, in fig. 4, 
without the actual steps, supposing them to be cut in succession, 
horizontally, through their middles. 

The framepiece is the principal piece in the staircase. It is 
situated in the centre of the cage, and sustains each step, and, 
consequently, must be constructed very accurately, for upon it, in 
a great measure, depends the strength and solidity of the staircase. 
For a staircase of proportions, like those of tho one represented in 
the plate, the framepiece is generally made of oak, in three pieces ; 
tho middle piece, c, corresponding to the curved portion, whilst 
the other two, b and D, joined to that one, form the rectilinear 
portions. A special set of diagrams is necessary, to determine 
the shape and proportions of the various parts of this framepiece. 
The method hero to be followed is, in the first place, to draw the 
joints, by which the vertical portions of the steps are attached to 
the framepiece. Theso can easily be obtained by squaring them 
over from fig. 4 to fig. 5, in which last ore the horizontal division 
lines, corresponding to fig. 2. It will be observed, that the joints 

referred to are lie\illed off, B0 as not to lie apparent externally, 
The laces on tho IV:»mepieee are seen oil fig, 6, al tlu> parts, B, I , 



56 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



and the method of obtaining them is sufficiently indicated by the 
dotted lines. The framepiece has a certain regular depth through- 
out, and is cut on the upper side, to suit the form of the steps, 
and below, to the curvilinear outline, a' V c' dl e' /', which is 
nothing but the combination of a helix with a couple of straight 
lines. These straight lines, a' I' and e'f, are naturally parallel to 
the curve passing through the edges of the steps, 1, 3, 5, 13, 16, 
19. The curved part, b l c 1 , wliich corresponds to the anterior 
face, b 2 c 2 , of the framepiece, is drawn in precisely the same manner 
as a common cylindrical helix. It is the same with the part, d 1 e 1 , 
which corresponds to the interior portion, d 2 e 2 . If, in order to 
better indicate the space occupied by the framepiece, it is wished 
lo construct an end view of it, this may be done, as in fig. 6, from 
the data furnished by figs. 4 and 5. 

In figs. 12, 13, and 14, we have given, on a larger scale, the 
different views of the curved part, c, of the framepiece, so as to 
€how its construction more plainly, as well as the form of the joint 
connecting the three parts of the framepiece together. Each of 
these figures is inscribed in a rectangle, indicated by dotted lines, 
and representing the rectangular parallelopiped, in which the piece 
may be said to be contained. To strengthen the junction of this 
piece with the portions, b and d, they are connected by iron straps 
or binding-pieces let in, or by bolts passing through, the entire 
thickness of the wood. 

Figs. 7 and 8 represent, in plan and elevation, the details of 
the landing-stage, which forms the top step of one flight of the 
stairs, and is on a level with the upper floor. It is with this 
piece that the upper portion, d, of the framepiece is connected, by a 
joint similar to that uniting the other portions. Fig. 9 is a sec- 
tion, through the centre of this step-piece, through the line, 1 — 2, 
in the plan ; whilst fig. 10 is another section, through the line, 3 — 4 ; 
and fig. 11 a third, through the line, 5 — 6. The form, dimensions, 
and joint of this piece, are all fully indicated in this series of 
figures. 

The shaft of the staircase, or the open space left in the centre 
of the cage, is partially occupied by a balustrade, formed by a 
number of rods of iron or wood, attached at their lower extremities 
to the framepiece, as shown in fig. 15, and united above by a flat 
bar of iron, surmounted by a hand-rail of polished furniture-wood, 
of the form given in Plate HI., fig. ©. The position of the rods, 
as given in the plan, fig. 1, is sufficient for the determination of 
their vertical projection or elevation. 



THE INTERSECTION OF SURFACES. 

APPLICATION TO STOPCOCKS. 

PLATE XVII. 

182. We have already discussed several examples of intersec- 
tions of surfaces, as in pipes and boilers, and we shall now pro- 
ceed to give some others, which are pretty generally met with, 
particularly in the construction of stopcocks ; and for that reason 
we take one of these contrivances as an illustration. 

A stopcock is a mechanical arrangement, the function of which 
is to establish or interrupt at pleasure the communication through 
pipes, for the passage of gases or liquids. It consists of two dis- 



tinct parts, one called the cock, and the other — adjustable and 
moveable in the first — termed the key or plug. 

Stopcocks are generally made of brass, composition-metal, or 
cast-iron, and the cock is formed with or without flanges, for 
attachment to vessels or piping. The key is generally conical, so 
as to fit better in its seat. The degreo of taper given to the key 
varies with different constructors. We have shown in dotted lines, 
in fig. 2 6 , various degrees of taper to be adopted, according as 
greater tightness or greater facility of movement is wanted. The 
part of the cock which receives the key is, of course, turned out 
to a corresponding conical surface. This portion of the cock is 
connected to the tubular portions by shoulders, of a slightly ellip- 
tical contour. A stopcock answering to this description is repre- 
sented, in plan and elevation, in figs. 1 and 1*. 

In these figures will be seen the conical part, a, which embraces 
the key, the cylindrical portions, b, united to the former by the 
shoulders, d, and terminated by the flanges, c. 

The conical key, e, adjusted in the cock, is surmounted by a 
handle, f, by means of which it is turned. The key is retained 
in the cock by a nut, g, working on a screw, formed on the lower 
projecting end of the key. Fig. 1" represents an end view of this 
cock, and fig. 2" is a vertical projection of the key alone. Fig. 2« 
is a view of the key, looking on the lower end. Fig. 2 is a hori- 
zontal section through the line, 1 — 2, in fig. 1°; and fig. 2° is a 
vertical section through the line, 3 — 4, fig. 1. 

It will be easy to see, from these various views, that, in order 
to represent the stopcock with exactitude, it has been necessary 
to find, on the one hand, the projection of the intersection of the 
elliptic shoulder, d, with the external conical surface of the central 
part, a, of the cock ; and on the other, that of the cylindrical sur- 
faces of the handle, f, of the key, as well when this is placed in a 
position parallel to the vertical plane, as in fig. 2°, or inclined to 
this plane, as in fig. 1". We have, moreover, to determine the 
intersection with the external surface of the key of the rectangular 
opening, h, provided for the passage of fluids ; and also the inter- 
section of a prism with a sphere, wliich occurs in the shape of the 
nut, g, which secures the key in its place. The various opera- 
tions here called for are indicated on the figures, which we shall 
proceed to explain. 

Figs. 3 and 3" show the geometrical construction of the inter- 
section of the horizontal cylinder, f', of the handle, with the verti- 
cal cylinder, e', of the key. The curve is obviously obtained 
according to the method already described in reference to figs. 1 
and 2, Plate XTV. We have, however, repeated the operations, 
the exemplifications being a variation from that previously given. 

183. When the horizontal cylinder, f', figs. 3 6 and 3°, becomes 
inclined to the vertical plane, its curve of intersection with the 
vertical cylinder, e', assumes a different appearance as projected 
in this plane. Its construction, however, is precisely the same, as 
follows : — To obtain any point in the curve, we proceed just as in 
the preceding example, drawing the vertical plane, d' e', parallel 
to the axes of the cylinders, this plane cutting the vertical cylinder 
through the fines, d f and e g. This same plane cuts the horizon- 
tal cylinder, as projected in plan, at d' e', whence the vertical pro- 
jection is obtained, after drawing the semi-cylindrical end view, as 
in fig. 8. The distance, i i', being set off on h h', the horizontal 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



67 



line, d e, drawn through the point, h', represents the intersection 
of the plane with the horizontal cylinder, h h', being, of course, 
measured from its sxis. It will be seen that the line, d e, is cut 
by the vertical lines, d f and e g, in the points, d, e, which lie in 
the curve sought ; and the same construction will apply to every 
other point in the curve, dbec. 

184. Figs. 4 and 5 represent the intersection of an elliptical 
cylinder with a right cone of circular base, corresponding to the 
external conical surface, a, of the cock, at its junction with the 
shoulders, D. Fig. 5 is a plan, looking on the cock from below, 
and which shows the horizontal projection of the intersectional 
curves. 

The solution of the problem requiring the determination of these 
curves consists in applying a method already given — namely, in 
taking any horizontal plane which cuts the cone, so as to present a 
circular section on the one hand, and the cylinder in two straight 
lines on the other — the points of intersection of these straight lines 
with the circle representing the section of the cone. Thus, by 
drawing the plane, c d, fig. 4, we obtain a circle of the diameter, c d, 
which is projected horizontally, as with the centre, o, fig. 5 ; we 
have also two generatrices of the cylinder, both projected in the 
vertical plane in the line, a b, and in the horizontal plane in the lines, 
a' b' and a 2 b 2 . Having drawn the semibase of the cylinder, d e, as 
at d'fe', and having taken the distance,/^, fig. 4", and set it off, in 
fig. 5, from the axis, as from g' to a', and to a 2 , we thereby obtain 
the generatrices, a' b' and a 2 b 2 , which cut the circle of the dia- 
meter, c' d', in the four points, h' i', which are squared across to, 
and projected in, the vertical plane in the points, ft, i. In the 
same manner we obtain any other points, as m, n ; k I being the 
plane taken for this purpose. The extreme points of the curve 
are obtained in a very simple and obvious manner, as /, g, r, s, 
being the points of intersection of the extreme generatrices, or 
the outlines of the two solids. With regard to the points, t, u, 
which form the apices of the two curves, their position may be 
obtained from the diagram, fig. 4", by drawing from the point, s, 
which would be the apex of the entire cone, a tangent, s t, to the 
base, d' fe', of the cylinder, and projecting the point of contact, t, 
in the line, x y, representing a plane cutting the cone, which must 
be projected in the horizontal plane. Then, making g' x', fig. 5, 
equal to t v, fig. 4", and drawing horizontals through x', their 
intersections, t' u', with the circular section of the cone, will 
be the points sought, which are accordingly squared over to 
fig. 4. The operations just described are analogous, it will be 
observed, to those employed in obtaining the intersection of two 
cylinders. 

If, in the case of the cone and cylinder, the latter had been one 
of circular instead of elliptical base, as is frequently the case, still 
the construction, as a little consideration will show, must bo pre- 
cisely the same, and the resulting curves would be analogous — that 
is, when the diameter of the cylinder is less than that of the cono 
at the part where it meets tho lowest generatrix of the cylinder ; 
the curves, however, assume a differont appearance when the dia- 
meter of tho cylinder exceeds this, as is shown in figs. 6 and 7. 
In this case the intersections aro represented by the curves, s / r 
and p u q; the method of obtaining theso is fully indicated on tho 
diagrams. 



185. The opening or slot, h, cut through the key of the stop- 
cock, is generally rectangular, rather than circular, or similar to 
the tubular portions of the cock. The object of this shape is to 
make the key as small as possible, and yet retain the required 
extent of passage. This rectangular opening gives rise, in fig. 2°, 
to the intersectional curves, a b, c d, which are portions of the 
hyperbola, resulting from the section made by a plane, cutting the 
cone parallel to its axis. The operations whereby they are deter- 
mined are indicated in figs. 10, 11, and 12. 

To render the character of the curve more apparent, we have, 
in these figures, supposed the generatrices of the cone to make a 
greater angle with the axis than in fig. 2". The line, a b, repre- 
sents the vertical plane in which the curve of intersection lies. 
It is evident that, if we delineate a series of horizontal planes, as 
c d, ef, g h, ik, fig. 10, we shall obtain a corresponding series of 
circles in the horizontal projection, these circles cutting the plane, 
a b, in the points, l', m', n', p', &c. These points are squared over 
to the vertical projection, fig. 10, giving the points, I, m, n,p; and 
the apex, o, of the curve is obtained, by drawing in the plan, 
fig. 12, with the centre, s, a circle tangent to the plane, a b, and 
then projecting this on the vertical plane, fig. 10, as shown. 
From these diagrams, it is easy to see that the opening, h, will be 
partly visible when the key is seen from below, as in fig. 2°. 

186. Figs. 8 and 9 represent the vertical and horizontal pro- 
jections of the nut, g, which secures and adjusts the key in its 
socket. This nut is hexagonal, being terminated by a portion of 
a sphere, the centre of which lies in the axis of the prism. Each 
of the facets of the prism cuts the surface of the sphere, so as to 
present at their intersection portions of equal circles, which should 
be determined in lateral projection. The diameter of the sphere 
is generally three or four times that of the circle circumscribing 
the nut, but, to render the curves more distinct, we have adopted 
a smaller proportion in the case under examination. The sphere, 
y, is represented by two circles of the radius, o a ; and the nut by 
an hexagonal prism, the axis of which passes through the centre of 
the sphere. The anterior facet, a' b', of this nut, cuts the sphere, 
so as to show a circle of the diameter, c' d'. This circle, projected 
vertically on fig. 8, cuts the straight lines, a e and b f, of the 
prism, in the points, a and b ; and the portion of the circle com- 
prised between these two points, consequently, represents the 
intersection of this facet with the sphere. The other two facets, 
a g' and b' h', which are inclined to tho vertical plane, also cut 
the sphere, so as to produce, at their intersection with the surface, 
arcs of equal radii with that of the facet, a b. From their incli- 
nation, these arcs become slightly elliptical, being comprised, on 
tho one hand, between the points, a and g, and b, h, on the other. 
The summits of these ellipses are obtained by drawing horizontal 
lines tangential to the arc, a b, and cutting it in the points, k. I.. 
by perpendiculars drawn through the middle of the lateral facets. 
In practice, it is quite sufficient to describe circular arcs, passing 
through the points, g, k, 0, and b, /,' h. 

Wo have already seen, in reference to Plate XIV., that tho 
intersection of a right cylinder with a sphere, through the centre, 
of which its axis |>:isses, gives a circle projected laterally as a 
Straight line. 'rims, the opening o', which passes through the nut. 

being cylindrical, produces, by its intersection with the sphere, a 

a 



58 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



circle of the diameter, m! n', in the plan, projected vertically in the 
straight line, m n. 

Fig. 8" indicates the analogous operations i-equired to determine 
the same intersections when the nut is seen with one of the 
angles in the centre, and only two facets visible, as represented in 
fig. 1». 

The elliptic curve, b 2 I 2 h 2 , corresponding to the one, b I h, must 
obviously be comprised between the same two horizontal lines 
passing through these points, and an arc is drawn through them 
as before. 

We may here observe, that the proficient draughtsman will, 
doubtless, deem it unnecessary, except in extraordinary cases, to 
enter into such minute details of construction for the various 
intersectional curves as those we have discussed, being guided 
simply by his own judgment, and the appearance presented by 
different experimental proportions. All draughtsmen, however, 
will find that some practice in obtaining the exact representation 
of the various curves, according to the methods here given and 
rules laid down, will be of immense advantage to them — enabling 
them, from possessing a thorough theoretical knowledge of the rela- 
tions of the various forms of solids to each other, to approach 
much nearer truth, when, at a more advanced stage, they relinquish 
the aid of such constructive guides. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

STEAM. 

187. All liquids become changed to vapour when their tem- 
perature is sufficiently elevated. When water, contained in a close 
vessel, is elevated to a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit, it produces 
steam of a pressure or force equal to that of the atmosphere. 

The pressure of the atmosphere is a force capable of sustaining, 
in a vacuum, a column of water 33 feet high, or a column of mer- 
cury 30 inches high. This force is equal to a weight of about 
15 lbs. per square inch. 

Thus, taking the square inch as the unit of superficial measure- 
ment, the pressure or tension of the steam at 212° Fahrenheit is 
also equal to 15 lbs. 

When the containing vessel is hermetically closed, as in a boiler, 
if the temperature be increased, the steam becomes endued with 
more and more expansive force — this increase of force, however, 
not being directly proportionate to the increase of temperature. 

The tension or expansive force of steam, as also of gases 
generally, is inversely as the volume ; thus, at the pressure of one 
atmosphere, for example, the volume of the steam or gas being 
one cubic foot, the same quantity of steam would occupy only 
half the space at a pressure of two atmospheres, and reciprocally. 



TABLE OF PRESSURES, TEMPERATURES, WEIGHTS, AND VOLUMES OF STEAM. 



Pressure in. 


Pressure in Inches 


Pressure per Square 


Temperature 


Temperature 


Weight of a Cubic Foot 


Volume of a Pound 


Atmospheres. 


of Mercury. 


Inch. 


Fahrenheit. 


Centigrade. 


of Steam. 


of Steam. 








Degrees. 


Degrees. 


Lb. 


Cubic Feet. 


1-00 


30-0 


15-00 


212 


100-0 


•3671 


2-7236 


1-25 


37-5 


18-75 


224 


106-6 


•4508 


2-2183 


1-50 


45-0 


22-50 


234 


112-4 


•5332 


1-8852 


1-75 


52-5 


26-25 


243 


117-1 


•6144 


1-6281 


2-00 


60-0 


30-00 


250 


121-5 


•6936 


1-4433 


2-25 


67-5 


33-75 


258 


125-5 


•7729 


1-2938 


2-50 


75-0 


37-50 


264 


128-8 


•8491 


1-1777 


2-75 


82-5 


41-25 


270 


132-1 


•9284 


1-0771 


3-00 


90-0 


45-00 


275 


135-0 


1-0058 


•9942 


3-25 


975 


48-75 


280 


137-7 


1-0826 


•9237 


3-50 


105-0 


52-50 


285 


140-6 


1-1582 


•8634 


4-00 


120-0 


60-00 


294 


145-4 


1-3086 


•7642 


4-50 


135-0 


67-50 


301 


1491 


1-4572 


•6862 


5-00 


150-0 


75-00 


308 


153-3 


1-6033 


•6236 


5-50 


165-0 


82-50 


314 


156-7 


1-7494 


•5716 


6-00 


180-0 


90-00 


320 


160-0 


1-8946 


•5273 


6-50 


195-0 


97-50 


326 


163-3 


2-0359 


•4912 


7-00 


210-0 


105-00 


331 


166-4 


2-1777 


•4583 


8-00 


210-0 


120-00 


342 


172-1 


2-4562 


•4071 



With the assistance of this table, we can solve the following 
problems : — 

First Example. — What is the amount of steam pressure acting 
on a piston of 10 inches diameter, corresponding to a temperature 
of 275 degrees? It will be seen that the pressure corresponding 
to 275° is equal to three atmospheres, or to 45 lbs. per square 
inch. 

The area of a piston of 10 inches in diameter is equal to 
10 3 x -7854 = 78-54 sq. inches; 



consequently, 

78-54 X 45 = 3534-3 lbs. 
Thus, to solve the problem, we look in the table for the pressure 
corresponding to the given temperature, and multiply it by the 
area of the piston expressed in square inches. 

Second Example. — What weight of steam is expended during 
each stroke of the piston, the length of stroke being 3 feet? 
We first obtain the volume expended, 
78-54 
12 



x 3 = 19-635 cubic feet. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



59 



At a pressure of three atmospheres, a cubic foot of steam weighs 
1"0058 lb.; consequently, 

19-635 x 1-0058 = 19-75 lbs. 

To solve this problem, then, we ascertain the volume expended 
in cubic feet, and multiply it by the weight corresponding to the 
given temperature, or pressure — the product is the weight in 
pounds. 

UNITY OF HEAT. 

188. With a view to facilitate various comparisons connected 
with the subject of steam, the French experimentalists have 
adopted the term calorie, or unity of heat. This is denned as the 
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a kilogramme 
(= 2-205 lbs.) of water, one degree centigrade. 

Thus, a kilogramme of water at 25° contains 25 unities of heat ; 
and, in the same manner, 60 kilog. of water at 50° contains 
50 x 60 = 3000 unities. 

The number of unities of heat is obtained by multiplying its 
weight in kilogrammes by the temperature in degrees centigrade. 

The amount of heat developed by different descriptions of fuel 
varies according to their quality, and according to the construction 
of the furnaces. 

According to M. Peclet, the mean quantity of heat developed 
by a kilogramme of coal is equal to 7500 calories, or unities of 
heat. 

According to M. Berthier, that developed by a kilogramme of 
wood charcoal varies from 5000 to 7000 unities. 

In the following table will be found the results of experiments 
with different descriptions of fuel : — 

Table of ihe Amount of Heal developed by one Kilogramme of Fuel. 



Description of Fuel. 



Wood Charcoal, 

Coke 

Medium Coal 

Dry Turf, 

Common Turf, containing 20 per cent. ) 
of water ) 

Inferior Turf, 

Dry Wood of all descriptions, 

Common wood, containing 20 per ) 
cent, of water, ) 

Turf Charcoal 



Number of 

unities of heat 

developed by 

1 kilog. 



Quantity of 

steam practically 

obtainable from 

1 kilog. 



6000 to 7000 
6000 
7500 
4800 

3000 

1500 
3600 

2800 

5800 



Kilog. 
•6 to 6 

" 8 

•75 " 7 

(t 

•8 " 2 

3-7 

2-7 

•8 to 3 



In the last column of this table, we have given the quantities 
of steam produced by the combustion of one kilogrammo of fuel, 
being such as are practically obtainable in apparatus most com- 
monly met with. 

Example. — What is the quantity of coal necessary for tho sup- 
ply of a furnace intended to produco 250 kilog. of steam ? 

The avorage produce of 1 kilog. of coal being 6-5 kilog., wo 
have 

— = 84 kilog. of coal. 
189. The boilers in which the steam is to be produced, may bo 



of the shape represented in figs. 4 and 5, Plate X1T.— that is, 
cylindrical, and terminated by hemispheres. They are frequently 
accompanied by two or three tubular pieces in connection with the 
main portion of the boiler by pipes. Boilers answering to this 
description are termed French boilers, being of French origin ; they 
are found very effective, and are much used in the manufacturing 
districts of England. These boilers are made of plates of wrought- 
iron, the thickness of which varies, not only according to the size 
of the boilers, but also according to the pressure at which it is 
intended to produce steam. 

The proper thickness for the plates of cylindrical boilers may 
be determined by the following formula, which is the one adopted 
by the French Government in their police regulations : — 



m 18 x d x p 

T = — To— +3 ' 



where 



T = thickness in millimetres; 

d = diameter of boiler in metres ; 

p = pressure in atmospheres, less one. 

The rule derivable from the formula is — 

To multiply the effective pressure of the steam in atmospheres 
by the diameter of the boiler, and by the constant 18, dividing the 
product by 10, and augmenting the quotient by 3, which will give 
the thickness in millimetres. 

To simplify these calculations, we give a table showing the 
thickness proper for boiler plates, calculated up to a diameter 
of 2 metres, and to a pressure of 8 atmospheres above the atmo- 
sphere : — 

Table of Thicknesses of Plates in Cylindrical Boilers. 







Pressure of Steam in Atmospheres. 




















of Boiler. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 


8. 


Metres. 


Millim. 


Millim. 


Millim. 


Millim. 


Millim. 


Millim. 


Millim. 


•50 


3-9 


4-8 


5-7 


6-6 


7-5 


8-4 


9-3 


•55 


4-0 


5-0 


6-0 


7-0 


7-9 


8-9 


9-9 


•60 


4-1 


5-1 


6-2 


7-3 


8-4 


9-5 


10-5 


•65 


4-2 


5-3 


6-5 


7-7 


8-8 


10-0 


11-2 


•70 


4-3 


5-5 


6-8 


8-0 


9-3 


105 


118 


•75 


4-3 


5-7 


7-0 


8-4 


9-7 


111 


12-4 


•80 


4-4 


5-9 


7-3 


8-8 


10-2 


11-6 


131 


•85 


4-5 


61 


7-6 


9-1 


10-6 


12-2 


13-7 


•90 


4-6 


6-2 


7-9 


9-5 


11-1 


12-7 


14-3 


•95 


4-7 


6-4 


8-1 


9-8 


11-5 


13-3 


150 


1-00 


4-8 


6-6 


8-4 


10-2 


12-0 


13-8 


15-6 


110 


50 


7-0 


8-9 


10-9 


12-9 


14-9 


« 


1-20 


5-2 


7-3 


95 


11-6 


13-8 


16-0 


ii 


1-30 


5-3 


7-7 


10-0 


124 


14-7 


(( 


II 


1-40 


5-5 


8-0 


10-6 


13-1 


15-6 


CI 


(i 


1-50 


5-7 


8-4 


111 


13-8 


" 


u 


n 


1-60 


5-9 


8-8 


11-6 


14-5 


" 


« 


" 


1-70 


6-1 


9-1 


12-2 


15-2 


" 


" 


ii 


1-80 


6-2 


9-5 


127 


16-0 


el 


M 


it 


1-90 


6-4 


9-8 


13-3 


" 


u 


" 


" 


2-00 


6-6 


10-2 


13-8 


u 


ii 


" 


M 



To suit English measures, (ho formula is — 



T = 



IS \ ,/ x ; , 

10,000 



+ -1182. 



60 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



And here, 

T = thickness in inches ; 
d = diameter in inches ; 
p = pressure in atmospheres, less one. 

HEATIN& SURFACE. 

190. In practice it is generally calculated that a square metre 
of heating surface will produce from 18 to 25 kilog. of steam per 
hour, whatever be the form of boiler, whether cylindrical, with or 
without additional tubes, or waggon-shaped. 

The amount of heating surface, per horse power, generally 
adopted, is from 1 to l - 5 sq. m. 

In this siuface is not only included that which is directly 
exposed to the action of the fire, but also that which receives heat 
from the smoke and gases which traverse the flues ; this last being, 
of course, much less effective in the production of steam. 

According to circumstances, one-half or a third of this surface 
may be exposed to the direct action of the fire, which will give, 
for the whole heating surface, two-thirds of the entire surface of 
the boiler. 

In the following table we give the principal dimensions, corre- 
sponding to given horses power of boilers of the French descrip- 
tion — that is, cylindrical with two tubes or smaller cylinders 
below. 

Table of Dimensions of Boilers and Thickness of Plates for a 
Pressure office Atmospheres. 



Horses 
Power. 


Length of 
Boiler. 


Length of 

ihe 
two Tubes. 


Diameter 
of Boiler. 


Diameter 

of the 
Tubes. 


Thickness 
of Plates for 
the Boiler. 


Thickness 
ofPlates for 
the Tubes. 




M. 


M. 


M. 


M. 


M / m . 


M / m . 


2 


1-65 


1-75 


•66 


•28 


8 


8 


4 


2-10 


2-20 


•70 


•30 


8 


8 


6 


2-70 


2-85 


•75 


•35 


q 


10 


8 


3-40 


3-30 


■80 


•35 


9 


10 


10 


410 


4-30 


•80 


•38 


10 


10 


12 


4-80 


5-00 


•80 


■38 


10 


10 


15 


5-60 


5-80 


•80 


•45 


10 


10 


20 


6.60 


6-80 


•85 


•50 


10 


10 


25 


8-00 


8-20 


•85 


•50 


10 


10 


30 


8-30 


8-50 


1-00 


•60 


10-5 


10 


35 


9-50 


9-70 


1-00 


•60 


11 


10 


40 


10-00 


10-30 


1-00 


■70 


11 


10 



In cylindrical boilers, without additional tubes, the water should 
occupy two-thirds of the whole space, and in boilers, with the 
tubes, it should occupy about one-half the main cylindrical body 
of the boiler, in addition to the tubes. 

In order that the steam may not cany along with it small 
quantities of water, which action is termed "priming" the boiler 
is surmounted by a cylindrical chamber, or dome, in which the 
steam collects, and from the highest part of which it makes its exit, 
quite out of reach of the water thrown up by the ebullition. 

CALCULATION OF THE DIMENSIONS OF BOILERS. 

First Example. — What is the proper length for a cylindrical 
boiler, without additional tubes, capable of supplying an engine of 
6 horses power, supposing the diameter to be - 8 m., and the heat- 
ing surface T3 sq. m., per horse power? 



We have 1 3 x 6 = 7 - 8 sq. m., total heating surface. 

Now, as the heating surface should be two-thirds of the entire 

surface of the boiler, it follows that 

2 4 it R 

78 sq. m. = L X 2 rt R x — = L x — — , 

where L represents the length sought, and R the semi-diameter, 

== -4 m. ; so that, substituting for n and R their respective 

numerical values, we have — 

4 
7-8 sq. m. = L x 3-14 x -4 x — = L x 1-675 ; 



whence, 



7-8 
1-675 



x 4-65 m. 



As it jnay be well to know the capacity of the boiler for watei 
and steam, this may be ascertained according to the rules pre- 
viously given for the contents of cylinders, spheres, &c. (121 — 124). 
The boiler being terminated by hemispheres, the length of the 
cylindrical portion will be equal to 

4-65 — (-4 x 2)= 3-85. 

We shall have, then, for the volume corresponding to the 

cylindrical portion — 

2 
V= — X 3-14 x -4 2 x 3-85 = 1-29 cub. m. 

and for that of the hemispherical ends — 

2 4 
V — y x y X 3-14 X -4 3 = -179 cub. m. 

The whole volume of water is, consequently, 

1-29 + -179 = 1-469 cubic metres. ' 
The remainder of the volume, which is occupied by the steam 
is obviously 

1-46 9 
~2~ 
and the contents of the entire boiler, 

1-469 + -734 = 2-203 cubic metres. 
This result might have been obtained by the following general 
formula : — 

4 



= '734 cubic metres. 



V = Lx rt R 

4 



+ ¥* R - 



3-85 x 3-14 x -4 2 + y x 3 ' 14 x ' 43 = 2 ' 203 cubic metres. 

191. We here quote the portion of the regulations enforced by 
the French Government, relating to the steam-boilers, as showing 
what conditions are deemed necessary in France for the insurance 
of public safety, and also as forming a good basis for calcula- 
tions : — 

" (33.) The boilers are divided into four classes. 

" The capacity of the boiler, including that of the tubes, if 
there be any, must be expressed in cubic metres, and the maxi- 
mum steam pressure must be expressed in atmospheres ; and these 
two quantities multiplied into each other. 

" If the product exceeds fifteen, the boiler is of the first class. 
It is of the second class, if the product is more than seven, but 
does not exceed fifteen. Of the third, when more than three, and 
not exceeding seven. And of the fourth, when not exceeding 
three. 

" If two or more boilers are arranged to work in concert, and 
have any communication with each other, direct or indirect, the 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



61 



term taken to represent the capacity must be the sum of the 
capacities of each. 

" (34.) Steam-boilers of the first class must be stationed outside 
of all dwelling-houses or workshops. 

" (35.) Nevertheless, in order that the heat, which would other- 
wise be dissipated by radiation, may be better economised, the 
officer may allow a boiler of the first class to be stationed inside a 
workshop, provided this does not form part of a dwelling-house. 

" (36.) Whenever there is less than 10 metres in distance 
between a boiler of the first class and a dwelling-house or public 
road, a wall of defence must be built, in good and solid masonry, 
and 1 metre thick. The other dimensions are specified in article 
41. This wall of defence must, in all cases, be distinct from the 
masonry of the furnaces, and separated from it by a space of at 
least 50 centimetres in width. It must, in a like manner, be 
separated from the intermediate walls of the neighbouring houses. 

" If the boiler be sunk into the ground, in such a manner that 
no part of it is less than 1 metre below the level of the ground, 
the wall of defence shall not be required, unless the boiler is within 
5 metres of a dwelling-house or of the public road. 

" (38.) Steam-boilers of the second class may be stationed inside 
a workshop which does not form part of a dwelling-house, or of 
a factory or establishment consisting of several stories. 

" (39.) If a boiler of the second class be within 5 metres from a 
dwelling-house or the public road, an intermediate wall of defence 
shall be erected, as prescribed in article 36. 

" (41.) The authority given by the inspecting-officer for boilers 
of the first and second class, shall indicate the situation of the 
boiler, its distance from dwelling-houses and the public roads, and 
shall determine, if there be space enough, the direction to be given 
to the axis of the boiler. 

" This authority shall also specify the situation and dimensions, 
as to length and height, of the wall of defence, where this is 
required, in conformity with the above regulations. 

" In determining these dimensions, regard must be had to the 
capacity of the boiler, to the pressure of the steam, as well as to 
all circumstances tending to make the boiler more or less danger- 
ous or inconvenient. 

" (42.) Steam-boilers of the third class may be stationed in 
workshops which do not form parts of dwelling-houses, and it is 
not necessary to erect a wall of defence. 

" (43.) Steam-boilers of the fourth class may be stationed in 
any workshop, even if this forms part of a dwelling-house. 

" In this case, the boilers must be furnished with an open 
manometer. 

" (44.) The furnaces of steam-boilers of the third and fourth 
class shall bo entirely separated, by a space of at least 50 centi- 
metres, from any dwelling-house." 

According to these regulations, a boiler of the dimensions token 
for illustration, and supposing the maximum pressuro to bo 3 
atmospheres, would bo in the second class, for — 2-203 x 3 = 
6-609, which is below 7. 

Second Example. — What should bo tho dimensions of a cylin- 
drical boiler, with two additional tubes, intended to supply an 
engine of 16 horses power, tho diameter of tho main body being 
•9 m., and that of the tubes - 45 m. ? 



Assuming 1-2 sq. m., per horse power, for the heating surface, 
we shall have 1-2 x 16 — 19 : 2 sq. m., for the entire heating sur- 
face. Half of the surface of the main cylinder of the boiler, and 
three-fourths of that of the tubes, is the best disposition of tins 
heating surface. These data give rise to the following formula : — 

,. na 2rt R x L . 3 

19-2 sq. m. = +r-2rtxLx2x — = 

A 4 

it RL + 3?t r L— . 

L here represents the length of the boiler and tubes, which is 
the only unknown term. 

Substituting for R and r their numerical values, -45 and -225, 
we have — 

19-2 sq. m. = 3-14 X -45 x L + 3 x 3-14 x -225 x L; or 
19-2 sq. m. — L (3-14 x -45) + 3 x 3-14 x -225 = 
L (1-413 + 2-12); 
whence, 

19-2 19-2 

3-533 



5-43 m. 



1-413 + 2-12 

Thus, the total length of the boiler is 5"43 m., but the ends 
being hemispherical, the length of the cylindrical portion is 
equal to — < 

5-43 *- -9 = 4-53 m. 
The tubes usually project in front of the main body, to a dis- 
tance of about 50 centimetres; but, for convenience in constructing 
the return flues, they do not extend as far back, so that they are 
of about the same length as the main body. 

192. In distillery boilers, a horse power is understood to mean 
the capability of evaporating 25 kilogrammes of water in an hour. 
Thus, a boiler of 10 horses power should be capable of evaporating 
250 kilog. of water in that time. Now, assuming 1-12 sq. m. of 
heating surface, per horse power, for a steam-engine, we should 
only have an evaporation of from 18 to 20 kilog. per hour, per 
horse power, and per square metre of heating surface. 

DIMENSIONS OF FIKE-GRATE. 

193. In practice, 1 square metre of grate will burn from 40 to 
45 kilog. of coal per hour. Thus, a boiler intended to produce 
280 kilog. of steam per hour, will require, for this purpose — 
assuming that 1 kilog. of coal produces 6-65 of steam — 

28 

■ „ „, = 43 kilogrammes of coal: 
t>-o5 

and the furnace of this boiler should have a grate, measuring 1 

square metre. 

The grate-bars are generally of cast-iron, of from 30 to 35 
millimetres in width, but having between them a space of only 
7 or 8 millimetres, so that the intervals only occupy a fourth or 
a fifth of the wholo area. 

It has been found that greater strength and durability is 
obtained by making the bars straight above, and strengthened by 
parabolic leathers below. 

miMNF.vs. 

194. Tho height of chimneys is very variable, and cannot bo 
subjected to any fixed rule. The cross section at the summit 

depends upon (he si/.e of the grate, and is generally about a sixth of 



62 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



this. In the following application will be found calculations 
respecting chimneys, and examples of the various rules we have 
just given. 

APPLICATION. 

We propose calculating the dimensions of the furnace of a 
boiler, with its chimney, for an engine of 8 horses power, for 
example, to be worked on the high-pressure system, consuming, as 
a maximum, 5 kilogrammes of coal, per horse power, per hour, the 
amount of heating surface being taken at l - 52 sq. m., per horse 
power. 

For 8 horses power, the heating surface will be — 
1-52 x 8 = 12-16 sq. m. 

Each square metre of heating surface producing, at an average, 
18 kilogrammes of steam, we have — 

12-6 x 18 = 218-88 kilog. of steam. 

As 5 kilog. of steam are produced by 1 kilog. of coal, then — 

218-88 
■ — r — = 43-8 kilog., 

representing the quantity of coal consumed per hour. 

The grate area, corresponding to this consumption, assuming 

that one square decimetre is sufficient for 1-2 kilog. per hour, will 

be— 

43-8 
— — - = 36 square decimetres, 

supposing a fourth of this area to be free to the passage of air. 

It now only remains to calculate the cross sectional area of the 
chimney. With reference to this we must remark, that 18 cubic 
metres of air are required for the consumption of 1 kilog. of coal ; 
therefore, 43-8 kilog. will require 

43-8 x 18 = 788-4 cubic metres. 

This air, in traversing the fire, relinquishes a portion of its 
oxygen, which is partially replaced by carbonic acid gas and steam. 
If the gases escape from the chimney at a mean temperature of 
300° centigrade, the volume being, according to M. Peclet, at the 
rate of 38-54 cubic m. per kilog. of coal, will be 43-8 x 38-54 = 
1688 cubic metres per hour. If we divide this by 3600, we shall 
obtain the quantity which escapes per second ; namely, 
If 



3600 



= -4689 cubic m. 



If we assume, as is usually the case with boilers of the propor- 
tions here discussed, that the chimney is 22 metres high, the 
external atmosphere being at a temperature of 15° centigrade, the 

rate of exit of the gases may be obtained by the following formula : 

V = V-2g H a (t'—t). 

In the case under consideration, H = 22 m., a is the constant 
multiplier, -00365, f = 300°, t = 15°, and 2g = 19-62. Substi- 
tuting, then, for the letters their numerical values, we have 
V = V 19-62 x 22 x -00365 x (300 — 15) — 21. 

This signifies that the gas will escape from the chimney-top at 
the rate of 21 metres per second, if it meets with no resistance 
from the lateral surfaces of the flues and chimney; the actual 
rate, however, is only 70 per cent, of this — or, 
21 x -7= 14-7 m. 

If we divide the volume of gas which escapes per second by 
the rate at which it escapes in that time, as just determined, we 



shall obtain the cross sectional area proper for the upper part of 
the chimney; as thus — 
•4689 



14-7 



3-2 square decimetres. 



Thus the chimney, which is supposed to be square, will only 
require to measure, internally, something less than two deci- 
metres each way at the point of exit; this, however, is a. mini- 
mum dimension, and it will be advisable to give it greater dimen- 
sions than these. Thus it might be made 25 centimetres square, 
or even 30 or 35 centimetres, if there is any likelihood of the 
power of the boiler being increased afterwards, such increase being 
frequently called for in manufactories. A damper, however, 
should always be provided at the base of the chimney, by means 
of which the draught may be suited to the requirements. 

SAFETY VALVES. 

Table of Diameters of Safely Valves. 



Extent of 








Pressure in Atmosph 


eres. 








Henting 
Surface. 






















1* 


2 


2i 


3 


n 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Sq. M. 


M / m 


M /m. 


M /m 


"An. 


M An 


M /m 


M /m 


M /m 


M /m 


M L 


1 


25 


21 


18 


16 


15 


14 


12 


11 


10 


9 


2 


35 


29 


25 


23 


20 


19 


17 


15 


15 


13 


3 


43 


36 


31 


29 


26 


24 


21 


19 


17 


15 


4 


50 


41 


36 


32 


29 


27 


24 


22 


20 


19 


5 


56 


46 


40 


36 


33 


30 


27 


24 


22 


21 


6 


61 


50 


44 


39 


36 


34 


30 


27 


25 


23 


7 


66 


54 


48 


43 


39 


36 


32 


29 


27 


25 


8 


70 


58 


51 


46 


42 


39 


34 


31 


29 


27 


9 


75 


62 


54 


48 


44 


41 


36 


33 


30 


28 


10 


79 


65 


57 


51 


47 


43 


38 


35 


32 


30 


11 


83 


68 


60 


54 


49 


45 


40 


36 


33 


31 


12 


87 


71 


62 


56 


51 


47 


42 


38 


35 


33 


13 


90 


74 


65 


58 


53 


49 


44 


40 


36 


34 


14 


93 


77 


67 


60 


55 


51 


45 


41 


37 


35 


15 


96 


80 


70 


62 


57 


53 


47 


42 


38 


36 


16 


100 


82 


72 


65 


59 


55 


48 


44 


40 


38 


17 


103 


85 


74 


67 


61 


56 


50 


45 


42 


39 


18 


106 


87 


76 


68 


63 


58 


51 


47 


43 


40 


19 


109 


90 


78 


70 


64 


60 


53 


48 


44 


41 


20 


111 


92 


80 


72 


66 


61 


54 


49 


45 


42 


21 


114 


94 


82 


74 


68 


63 


56 


50 


46 


43 


22 


117 


97 


84 


76 


69 


64 


57 


51 


47 


44 


23 


119 


99 


86 


77 


70 


66 


58 


53 


48 


45 


24 


122 


101 


88 


79 


72 


67 


59 


54 


49 


46 


25 


125 


103 


90 


81 


74 


69 


60 


55 


50 


47 


26 


127 


105 


91 


82 


75 


70 


62 


56 


51 


48 


27 


129 


107 


93 


84 


77 


71 


63 


57 


52 


49 


28 


132 


109 


95 


85 


78 


73 


64 


58 


53 


50 


29 


134 


111 


97 


87 


80 


74 


65 


59 


54 


51 


30 


136 


113 


98 


88 


81 


75 


66 


60 


55 


52 


32 


140 


116 


100 


90 


82 


76 


67 


62 


57 


53 


34 


145 


119 


104 


94 


86 ' 


1 79 


69 


64 


59 


55 


36 


149 


122 


107 


96 


87 


82 


71 


65 


61 


57 


38 


151 


125 


110 


97 


90 


83 


74 


66 


62 


58 


40 


156 


130 


113 


101 


92 


86 


75 


69 


64 


59 


45 


167 


137 


119 


107 


97 


91 


80 


73 


68 


63 


50 


174 


145 


125 


113 


104 


96 


84 


76 


70 


67 


55 


184 


151 


132 


119 


107 


101 


88 


80 


75 


70 


60 


193 


158 


137 


121 


113 


106 


94 


84 


78 


73 



195. Steam-engine boilers are always provided with various 
accessories, as safety valves, manometers, floats, alarm whistles. 

The manometer is an instrument which serves to indicate the 
pressure of the steam inside the boiler in atmospheres, and frac- 
tions of atmospheres. These instruments are constructed after 
various systems. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



63 



The float serves to indicate the level of the water, and the 
whistle to give the alarm when the water is much below the pro- 
per level. 

The safety valve provides an exit for the steam when the pres- 
sure is too high. 

We have given a drawing of one at fig. 4, Plate XI. Their 
diameters vary with the dimensions of the boilers and the pres- 
sure of the steam. 

The regulations of the French Government contain the following 
rules and the above table for their determination. To find the proper 
diameter for the safety valve, the heating surface of the boiler, 
expressed in square metres, must be divided by the maximum 



pressure of steam intended to be maintained, expressed in atmo- 
spheres, previously diminished by the constant *412 ; the square 
root of the quotient being extracted, is to be multiplied by 2-6, 
and the product will be the diameter sought, expressed in centi- 
metres. This rule may be put as a formula, thus: — 



d 



= 2-6 \/ 

V n — 



412 



where d is the diameter of the valve in centimetres, s the heating 
surface of the boiler, including both fire and flue surface, expressed 
in square metres, and n the number expressing the pressure in 
atmospheres. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE STUDY AND CONSTRUCTION OF TOOTHED GEAR. 



196. Toothed gear is a mechanical expedient, universally 
employed for the transmission of motion. It is met with of all 
proportions, from the minute movements of the watch, to the 
gigantic fittings of manufacturing workshops. Toothed gear is 
generally constructed with a view to the following principle of 
action — that the lateral acting-surfaces develop the same arc during 
the same duration of contact, whilst their angular velocities 
vary inversely as their diameters. By the angular velocity of 
any body, turning about a centre, is meant the angle passed 
through by the body in a unit of time ; whilst the real or linear 
velocity of any point is the space passed through by this point, 
whether the direction of motion be rectilinear or circular. Thus, 
various points on a crank, taken at different distances from the 
centre of the shaft, have all the same angular velocity, whilst their 
actual velocity differs considerably, because of their respective 
distances from the centre. It is the same with a pendulum, which 
vibrates through an angle, or has an angular motion about its 
' centre of suspension. The angular velocity of a body is greater, 
as the angle passed through in the same time is greater. Two 
points may have the same angular velocity, although the space 
passed through by each may be very different. Thus, all the 
points in the pendulum arc affected with an equal angular motion, 
whilst their actual velocities, or the course traversed by each, 
vary as the distance from the centre of motion. 

This description of gear consists of a series of projections, or 
teeth, regularly arranged on straight, cylindrical, or conical sur- 
faces, termed webs, and disposed so as to act on each other during 
a limited time. 

In order, however, that the gearing action may take place in a 
regular, even manner, it is indispensably necessary that the sur- 
faces of the teeth should bear upon each other tangentially, 
throughout the entire duration of their contact; and for this pur- 
pose, far from being arbitrarily designed, their form should bo 
determined with the utmost geometrical exactitude, for on their 
form entirely depends their accurate and easy working. It is, 



therefore, obviously incumbent on the student to give particular 
attention to the delineation of these teeth. 

The curves generally adopted in practice for the outline of 
teeth, are the involute, the cycloid, and the epicycloid. 

It is useful to investigate the nature and construction of these 
curves, both on account of their application to the teeth of wheels, 
and also because of their employment in several other mechanical 
contrivances. 



INVOLUTE, CYCLOID, AND EPICYCLOID. 
PLATES XVIII. AND XIX. 

INVOLUTE. 

Figure 1.— Plate XVIII. 

197. When a thread is unwound from the circumference of a 
circle, and is kept uniformly extended, its extremity will describe 
the curve known as the involute. 

This definition serves as a basis for obtaining the geometrie-d 
delineation of the involute. Let a b c be the given circle of 
the radius, a o, and a the extremity of a thread wound upon it. 
Starting from the point, a, mark off, at equal distances apart, 
several points, as a, b, c, so near to each other, that the interven- 
ing arcs may bo taken for straight lines without sensible error. 
Through each of these points draw tangents to the circle, or per- 
pendiculars to tho corresponding radii ; and on these tangents sot 
off distances, equal to tho rectifications of tho respective Bros, a a, 
A b, A c, &C ; by which means are obtained the points, a', b' , <■'. &C., 
and the curve passing through these points is a portion oi' the 
involute. By continuing the development or unwinding of the 

thread, the curve may be extended to a series o( convolutions 
increasing more and more in radius, and becoming a species of 
Bpirol. After one complete evolution of the circnniferenee, the 

shortest distance between two consecutive convolutions is always 
tho same, and equal to the development or rectification of tho 



64 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



circumference of the generating circle, which forms the nucleus of 
the curve. 

The points, a, b, c, being taken at equal distances apart on the 
circumference, the tangents are respectively double, triple, &c., 
that of the first, a a ; and if, as we directed, these points are suffi- 
ciently near to each other, the curve may be drawn, with closely 
approximate accuracy, by describing a succession of arcs, having 
these tangents for radii. Thus, with the point, a, as centre, and 
radius, a a', the first arc, a a', is drawn ; and with the centre, b, 
and radius, b b', the second arc, a' b', in like manner; and similarly 
with the rest. 

We shall show the application of the involute to toothed gear, 
worm wheels, and also for cams and eccentrics. 



Figure 2.— Plate XYIEL 

198. When a circular disc is rolled upon a plane surface in a 
rectilinear direction, any point in the circumference of this disc 
generates the curve called the cycloid. Thus, any point taken on 
the outside of a locomotive wheel in motion, describes as many 
repetitions of the curve as the wheel makes revolutions. 

In order that the curve may be perfect and true throughout, 
it is necessary that the motion should take place without any slid- 
ing upon the plane ; in other words, the length of the straight line 
forming the path of the disc should be equal to the portion of the 
circumference which, during the motion, has been applied to, or in 
contact with, the plane throughout that length. 

We propose to delineate the cycloid generated by the point, a, 
of a circle of the given radius, a o, and rolling upon a given 
straight line, b c. 

There are several methods of solving this problem. 

1st Solution. — Set off on the circumference, starting from the 
point, a, a number of distances equal to a a, so small that the arcs 
so divided may be taken as straight lines. Set off the same dis- 
tance a like number of times along the straight line, a c, and at 
the points, a b c, erect perpendiculars, cutting the line, o o', gene- 
rated by the centre of the rolling circle, and parallel to the given 
straight line, b c. In this way are obtained the points of inter- 
section, o, o 1 , o 2 , which are the centres of the circle when in the 
positions corresponding to the points of contact, a, b, c, d. With 
each of these points as centres, then describe portions of circles, 
on each of which successively set off the lengths of the arcs, 
a a', A b', a c', &c., from a to a' ', b to a 2 , and from c to b 2 , and so 
on throughout. The curve, a a" a 2 b 2 c 2 , passing through the 
points thus obtained, is the cycloid required. 

2d Solution. — The points in this curve may also Le obtained by 
drawing horizontal lines through the points of division, a' b' c', of 
the original circle, and then intersecting these by the ares drawn 
with the respective centres, o, o 1 , o 2 . 

2d Solution. — In place of drawing arcs of circles with the various 
centres, as indicated on the right-hand side of fig. 2, the curve 
may be obtained by setting off successively from the vertical, a o, 
on the horizontals, as before drawn, distances equal to those 
respectively contained between the original circle and the perpendi- 
culars through the several corresponding positions of the centre ; 



thus, the distances, e e'.ff, gg', h h', &c, are set off from 1 to a? 
2 to b 2 , 3 to c 2 , &c. 

To avoid confusion, we have constructed the diagram appertain- 
ing to this last solution to the left-hand side of fig. 2, which shows 
a portion of a second cycloid similar to the first. 

When the generating circle has made half a revolution, the sum- 
mit of the curve is obtained, as at d', the point corresponding to 
the diameter, a d. The length, a c, of the given straight line, is 
obviously equal to the rectification of the semi-circumference of the 
generating circle, whose radius is a o. 

By continuing the construction, a complete curve may be 
obtained, having equal and symmetrical portions on either side of 
the vertical, c d, and having for its base a line double the length 
of A c, and consequently equal to the rectification of the entire 
circumference of the generating circle. 

The cycloid is the curve more generally given to the teeth of 
wheel gear and endless screws. 

EXTERNAL EPICYCLOID. 

Figure 1. — Plate XIX. 

199. The epicycloid only differs from the cycloid, in that the 
generating circle, instead of rolling along in a straight line, does 
so around a second circle, wliich is fixed. When the two circles 
are in the same plane, the point taken generates a right or cylindri- 
cal epicj T cloid ; when the two circles are situate in different planes, 
but maintaining a uniform angle to each other, the generated curv6 
becomes a spheric epicycloid ; in this case the generating circle is 
supposed to revolve about a fixed centre, at the same time rolling 
along the circumference of the stationary circle. 

1st Solution. — For the delineation of the right epicycloid, the 
methods of construction to be adopted are analogous to that given 
for the cycloid. Thus, let a o be the radius of the generating 
circle, and a c the radius of the fixed circle ; divide the former into 
a number of equal parts in the points, a', b', c', d', &c, and on the 
latter divide off as many arcs equal to the arcs of the former, start- 
ing from a, as at a, b, c, d, &c. Through these latter points of divi- 
sion draw radii, c a, c b, c c, and prolong them so as to cut a circle, 
the radius of which is c o ; this circle being generated by the centre 
of the moving one during its rotation about the stationary one ; in 
this way are obtained the points, o, o 1 , o 2 , o 3 , which are the succes- 
sive positions of the centre of the generating circle, as during its 
rotation it is successively in contact at the points, a, b, c, d, of the 
fixed circle. Then, with these points as centres, describe the 
several arcs of equal radii with the generating circle, making them 
severally equal to the corresponding arcs, a a', a b', a c', as from 
a to a 2 , b to b 2 , c to c 2 , &c. The curve passing through the points, 
a 2 , b 2 , c 2 , is the epicycloid required. 

2d Solution. — The points of this curve may also be determined 
by drawing, with the centre, c, arcs passing through the points of 
division, a', b', c', d', and cutting the arcs described with the various 
centres, o, o 1 , o 2 , o 3 , in a 2 , b 2 , c 2 , d 2 , wliich are so many points in 
the epicycloid. 

3d Solution. — The curve may also be delineated by transferring 
the distance between the points, e, /, g, &c., of the generating 
circle in its original position, and the radii, c ft, c i, ck, passing 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



65 



through the different points of contact on the stationary circle, 
measured upon the arcs describe^ with the centre, c, to the same 
arcs, but so that the extremities of the whole may lie in the pro- 
longation of the radius, c b. Thus the distances, e e',ff, gg 1 , &c, 
are set off, from 1 to a 2 , 2 to b 2 , 3 to c 2 , &c. The diagram refer- 
ring to this construction forms the right-hand portion of fig. 1. 

When the generating circle has made an entire revolution, the 
curve obtained is an entire epicycloid, adb, comprising two equal 
tnd symmetrical portions on either side of the line, d e, which is 
squal to the diameter of the moving circle. 

EXTERNAL EPICYCLOID DESCRIBED BY A CIRCLE ROLLING ABOUT 
A FIXED CIRCLE INSIDE IT. 

Figure 3. — Plate XIX. 

200. For this diagram, which is analogous to the preceding one, 
the radii of the circles are given, c a being that of the fixed circle, 
and b a that of the moving one. Divide the first circle into any 
number of equal parts, in the points, a, b, c, d, &c, and divide off, 
on the larger circle of the radius, b a, a like number of arcs, equal 
to those on the other circle, as from a to a', a' to b, &c. Then 
with the point c as centre, and with the radius b c, describe a 
circle, cutting the radii, c a, c a, c b, c c, in the points, b, b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , 
and with each of the last as centres, and with the radius, A b, 
describe arcs, which will be tangents to the fixed circle, at the 
different points of contact, a, b, c, in succession. Then, with the 
centre, c, describe arcs, passing successively through the points, 
a', b', c', d', on the moving circles, as in its first position. These 
last will cut the arcs tangential to the given circle, in the points, 
t 2 , b 2 , c 2 , d 2 , and the curve passing through these points is the 
Ipicycloid sought. 

The other two methods given, of drawing the common epicy- 
cloid, are also applicable to this last case. 

INTERNAL EPICYCLOID. 

Figure 2.— Plate XIX. 

201. The epicycloid is termed internal, when the generating, 
circle rolls along the concave side of the circumference of a fixed 
circle. 

Let c a be the radius of the fixed circle, and b a that of the 
generating circle. As in preceding cases, so also here, we 
commence by dividing the moving circle into a certain number of 
equal parts, and then dividing the fixed circle correspondingly, so 
that the arcs thus obtained in each may be equal. We then pro- 
ceed as in the case of the external epicycloid, according to which- 
ever of the three solutions we propose adopting, all being alike 
applicable. The operations are fully indicated on fig. 2, and the 
same distinguishing letters are employed as in fig. 1. 

When the generating circle is equal to half of the fixed circle, 
the epicycloid generated by a point in the circumference is a 
straight line, equal to the diameter of the fixed circle Thus, in 
fig. 3, Plato XVIII., the epicycloid generated by tho point, a, of 
the moving circle of tho radius, a c, after a semi-revolution, coin- 
cides exactly with the diameter, a b. 

If, with circles of the same proportions as those in fig. 3, 
Plate XVIII., we take n point, d, outside the generating circle, 
but preserving a constant distance from it, tho epicycloid generated 



by it will be the ellipse, dfeg, having for its transverse axis the 
line, d e, equal to the diameter, a b, of the fixed circle, augmented 
by twice the distance, d a, of the point, d, from its extremity ; and 
for conjugate axis, the line, g f, equal to twice the same distance, 
D a, alone. If it is wished to determine this curve according to 
its properties as an epicycloid, and without having recourse to the 
methods given in reference to Plate V., and proper to the ellipse, 
it may be done by adding the distance, a d, to that of the radius, 
c a, in each successive position occupied by the generating circle 
during its rotation. If the generating point be taken inside the 
moving circle, the curve produced will also be an ellipse. 

The epicycloid is the curve most employed for the form of 
the teeth, whether of external or internal spur or bevil wheels. 

Toothed gearing may be divided generally into two categories ; 
namely, right, cylindrical, or " spur " wheels, and conical, angular, 
or " bevil " wheels. In the first are comprehended the action of a 
rack and pinion, that of a worm or tangent-screw with a worm- 
wheel, and finally, that of two wheels. We may remark, that in 
all these modes the teeth are so formed and arranged, as to act 
equally well whichever of each couple be the driver, and in which- 
ever direction the motion takes place. 

THE DELINEATION OF A RACK AND PINION IN GEAR. 

Figure 4.— Plate XVHI. 

202. A rack is a species of straight and rigid rod or bar, formed 
with teeth on one side, so as to take into or gear with the teeth of 
a right wheel, generally of small diameter, and in such case termed 
a pinion. Such a rack is represented at a b in the figure. 

In proceeding to construct this design, as well as for all kinds 
of toothed gear, it is necessary to have determined beforehand 
the thickness, a b, of the teeth, as this dimension varies accord- 
ing to the power or strain to be transmitted; and rules and tables, 
for tliis purpose, will be found at the end of the chapter. 

When the rack and pinion are made of tire same metal, the 
thickness of the teeth should be the same in both. The spaces or 
intervals between the teeth ought also to be equal in such case. 
Theoretically speaking, the intervals should be equal to the thick- 
ness of the teeth ; but in practice, they are made a little wider, to 
admit of freer action. 

203. The pitch of the teeth comprises the width of the tooth 
and that of the interval. In a wheel this pitch is measured upon 
a circle of a given radius, termed the primitive or pitch circle, and 
in the rack on a straight line tangent to the pitch circle of tire 
pinion, and also called tho primitive or pitch line. 

204. Let o c bo the radius of the pitch circle of a pinion gear- 
ing with a rack, of which tho pitch lino is a b. We propose, in 
the fust place, to dotormine tho curve of the teeth of the pinion, 
so as to gear with and drive tho rack, and we shall subsequently 
determine the curve of tho toeth of tho nick, enabling it to gear 
with and drivo tho pinion. 

Tho operations consist in rolling tho straight line, a c, tangen- 
tially to the pitch circle, o c; during this movement, the point, c, 
will generate an involute, c d, which may be drawn in tho manner 
indicated in fig. 1 — a construction which is further repeated at 
a 1 d', on one of the teeth of the pinion, fig. 4. 

This curve possesses this property, that if the teeth nro formed 

I 



66 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



to it, and the pinion be turned on its axis, the point of contact, c, 
will always be in the straight line, a, b, traversing this line at pre- 
cisely the same velocity as the pinion at that distance from the 
centre, that is, at the pitch circle; consequently, we divide this 
pitch circle into as many equal parts as there are to be teeth and 
intervals in the pinion, and at each of the points of division repeat 
the involute curve, c d, which will, of course, fulfil the same con- 
ditions at the various positions ; then, each of those divisions recti- 
fied is set off on the pitch line, a b, of the rack, as many times as 
is necessary. For each tooth the curves are placed symmetrically 
with reference to the radius which passes through then - centres, as 
indicated at o d', so that the pinion may act equally well when 
turning in one direction as in the other. 

205. Since the teeth cannot have an indefinite length, they may 
be limited as far as is compatible with the following considera- 
tions : — The tooth of the wheel, which is the driver, should not 
relinquish contact with the one upon which it acts, until the tooth 
immediately succeeding it has taken up its original position, which, 
in the working of two wheels, corresponds to the line joining the 
centres, and in that of a pinion and rack, to the radius, o c, per- 
pendicular to the pitch line, a b. 

Thus, supposing the pinion to move in the direction indicated 
by the arrow, the tooth, E, which is acting on the tooth, h, of the 
rack, should continue to impel it until the following tooth, g, shall 
have taken its place, when it will itself have taken the place of the 
tooth, f, having made the tooth, H, of the rack traverse to i. It 
will be observed that the curved part of the tooth is in contact at 
the point, c, on the pitch fine, a b ; the tooth might be cut away at 
this point; but in practice, in order that the pinion teeth may act 
through a somewhat greater interval, and to avoid the play result- 
ing from wear, they are truncated at a little beyond this point, c, 
a circle being described with the centre, o, cutting the curves of 
all the teeth at equal distances from the centre. 

To allow of the passage of the curved portion of the teeth of 
the pinion, the rack must be grooved out, so as to present bearino- 
surfaces, which are determined simply by the perpendiculars, bf, 
c d, g b, to the pitch line, A B, and passing through the points of 
division already set out on this line. 

These perpendiculars, at the same time, form the sides or flanks 
of the rack teeth. 

Rigorously speaking, the depth of the intervals on the rack 
should be limited by the straight line, m n, tangential to the exter- 
nal circle of the pinion ; but, to prevent the friction of the teeth 
against the bottom, it is preferable to augment the depth of the 
hollows by a small quantity, joining the sides of the teeth with 
the bottom by small quadrants, which, avoiding sharp angles, 
gives greater strength to the teeth. 

206. As in practice, toothed gear is constructed so as to drive, 
or be driven, indifferently, we require yet — to complete the design 
under consideration — to give to the teeth of the rack such curva- 
ture as is necessary to enable them to drive the pinion with which 
they are in gear in their turn, always fulfilling the conditions of a 
regular and uniform motion, both of the rack at its pitch line, and 
of the pinion at its pitch circle. 

With a view to the determination of this curve, we may remark, 
that if, with the radius, o c, as a diameter, we describe the sirele, 



olc, and cause it to roll along the straight line, A b, the point of 
contact, c, will generate a cycloid, c k, which may be constructed 
according to the methods indicated in fig. 2. 

If the same circle is made to roll along the interior of the pitch 
circle, g c j, of the pinion, the same point, c, will generate a right 
epicycloid, coinciding with the radius, o c, as has been seen in 
reference to fig. 3. 

Then, if we give to the teeth of the rack the curve, c k, and to 
the flanks of the pinion teeth the straight line, c o, the arrange- 
ment will exactly fulfil the condition sought; that is to say, that, 
in impelling the pinion teeth from right to left, the curve, c K, of 
the rack teeth will constantly apply itself to the straight line, o c, 
being always tangential to it. 

For example, suppose the curve, c k, to be traversed to the 
position, c' l, the radius, o c, will then be in the position, o l ; 
then, if from the point, L, the straight line, l c, be drawn, the 
angle, olc, will be a right angle ; that is to say, the line, o l, will 
be perpendicular to l c, and, consequently, tangential to the curve, 
L c', in the point, l. If, therefore, the motion of the rack is 
regular and uniform, that of the pinion will be equally so. The 
same curve, c k, is drawn at each of the points of division of the 
pitch line of the rack, as was already done for the teeth of the 
pinion. 

To find the proper length to give to the teeth, all that is neces- 
sary is to place, in the generating circle, o l c, a chord, l c, equal 
to twice c b 2 , and through the point, l, thereby obtained, to draw 
a straight line, M N, parallel to a b. If, through all the points of 
division in the pitch circle of the pinion, are drawn radii con- 
verging in the centre, o, they will give the flanks of the teeth, as 
i j, k I, &.c, which are limited by a circle described with the centre, 
o, and tangential to the straight line, m n ; for the same reason as 
that assigned in the case of the rack, however, the spaces between 
the teeth are made a little deeper, and the sides of the teeth are 
joined to the bottoms by quarter circles, the circle in which the 
bottoms lie being described with a radius somewhat less than that 
■of the circle last drawn. 

As it would be a tedious process to repeat the operations for 
determining the curves in the case of each individual tooth, it is 
a convenient plan to cut a piece of card or thin wood to the curve, 
so as to form a pattern or template, by the application of which to 
each of the points of division, the sides of the teeth may be drawn, 
care being taken to make the two sides of each perfectly symme- 
trical with reference to the centre line of the tooth. 

Even the labour of making a template or pattern is often dis- 
pensed with, and, in place of the curve, a simple circular arc is 
employed for the side of the tooth, the arc being of such a radius 
as to approximate as near the true curve as possible. With this 
view the arc should be tangential to the side of the tooth, and 
passing through the external corner. Thus, supposing it is 
wished to substitute an arc for the true curve of the rack teeth, 
such as o r of the tooth, f, since this arc has. to pass through the 
point, r, corresponding to l, and obtained by making r' r equal to 
L q, and to be a tangent at o, to the vertical, o p, draw the chord, 
o r, and bisect it by the perpendicular, s t, and its point of inter- 
section, s, with the pitch line, a b, will be the centre of the 
required arc, and the sides of all the teeth may afterwards be drawn 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



67 



with the same radius, care being taken to keep the centres in the 
line, a b. 

An analogous operation will give the proportions of the arc, 
substituting the curve of the pinion teeth. 

THE GEARING OF A WORM WITH A WORM-WHEEL. 

Figures 5 and 6. — Plate XVIII. 

207. This system of gear is constructed on the same principles 
as that of a rack and pinion, which method requires that, in the 
first place, the worm and worm-wheel be supposed to be sectioned 
by a plane passing through the axis of the former, and at right 
angles to that of the latter. The representation of this section 
becomes analogous to the diagram, fig. 4 ; that is to say, the pitch 
circle, g c j, of the worm-wheel being given, and also the straight 
pitch line, a b, of the worm tangential to this circle, and parallel 
to the axis of the worm, the involute curve, c d, is sought for the 
teeth of the wheel, and the cycloid, c k, for those of the worm. 
The lengths of these curves are limited, as in the preceding exam- 
ple, and when the whole is complete, an outline will be produced 
similar to the tinted portions of fig. 6. It is in tliis manner that 
the gearing of the worm and worm-wheel is made to depend upon 
the same principles as that of a rack and pinion, and the same 
method may be employed in construction in determining the outline 
of the teeth, as we have shown. 

To represent the worm and worm-wheel geometrically in exter- 
nal elevation, instead of a section of the teeth alone, it is necessary 
to know the diameter and pitch of the worm on the one hand, and 
the thickness of the worm-wheel, fig. 5, on the other. 

Let m' a' be the distance of the pitch line, a b, from the axis, 
m' n, of the worm, and a b the width of the wheel. When the 
worm is single-threaded (177), the pitch of the helix is the same 
as that of the teeth, and, therefore, the thickness of a tooth, added 
to the width of an interval. In this case, each revolution of the 
worm turns the wheel to the extent of one tooth, and this is the 
arrangement represented in the figures. If the worm, however, 
is double or triple-threaded, its helical pitch will be correspond- 
ingly two or three times the pitch of the teeth; and in such case, 
each revolution will turn the wheel to the extent of two or three 
teeth. 

The worm-wheel being of a certain thickness, and requiring to 
gear with the convolutions of the worm, must necessarily have its 
teeth inclined to correspond with the obliquity of the worm-thread. 
It is further to be observed, that the sides of the wheel-teeth 
being simply tangential to the worm-thread, contact cannot, 
rigorously speaking, take place in more than one point of ^ach 
tooth and convolution. This point constantly changes with the 
motion, but always lies in the plane, o' m', of the section. 

In delineating the convolutions of the worm-thread, helices 
have to be drawn passing through the cxtornal corners, d, e, and 
infernal corners,/,^. We have repeated these points to tho left- 
hand side of fig. 6, where the required operations aro fully indi- 
cated, in connection with tho projection, fig. 5, and in accordance 
with tho principles already explained (173). The corresponding 
points in the two figs. (5 and 6) are distinguished by (ho same 
letters and numbers. 



208. For the representation, in external elevation, of the teeth 
of the worm-wheel, it is required to develop a portion of the 
cylindrical surface generated by the revolution of the pitch-line, 
a b, about the axis of the worm, and containing the portion, 
A i k I m, for example, of the helix, described by the central point 
of contact, a. To obtain this, make the line, e' a', fig. 7, equal to 
the semi-circumference, a' m e 2 , rectified. At the point, e', erect 
the perpendicular, c' e', and make it equal to c e, fig. 6, or half 
the pitch, and join e' a', whereby will be obtained the actual 
inclination of the worm-thread. On each side of the point, m, on 
e' a', mark distances, m a 1 and m b', equal to m' a and m' b, tig. 5, 
and through these points draw parallels to c' e', and the portion, 
p q, of the enclosed fine comprised within them, will serve to deter- 
mine the width and inclination of the teeth of the worm-wheel. 
Through the points, p, r, draw p t and r s parallel to e' a', and 
mark off the distances, t s and s q, which are equal, on the pitch 
circle of the wheel, fig. 6, from s to 2 and q, after having drawn 
through the points, s, but only in faint pencil or dotted lines, the 
contours of the teeth as sectioned at f and g'. It is then sufficient 
to repeat these outlines through the points, t and q, limiting their 
length by the same internal and external circles. 

Finally, the edge view of the worm-wheel, fig. 5, being the 
lateral projection of the teeth, is determined by squaring across the 
points, u, v, x, to m 1 , v 1 , x 1 , which give the interiors of the teeth ; 
and the points, w 2 , v 2 , x 2 , being squared over to m 3 , v 3 , x 3 , give their 
exterior edges. 

Worm-wheels are sometimes constructed with the form of the 
teeth concave, and concentric with the axis of the worm, with the 
view of their being in contact with the convolutions of the worm- 
thread throughout a certain extent, in place of only touching at 
single points. 

This arrangement, which requires a particular operation for its 
construction, is generally adopted when great precision is required, 
and when it is wished to avoid, as much as possible, any play 
between the teeth and the worm-thread during the transmission of 
motion. 



CYLINDRICAL OR SPUR GEARING. 
PLATE XIX. 

THE EXTERNAL DELINEATION OF TWO SPUR-WHEELS IN GEAIl. 
FlGUKE 4. 

209. Spur-toothed wheels are such as have their teeth parallel, 
and lying upon a cylindrical surface or web. When a coupie of 
such wheels are of unequal size, the smaller one is generally 
called a pinion, and tho largor one a spur-wheel. Two wheels, 
which .are intended to gear together, cannot work satisfactorily in 
concert, unless their radii or pitch circles are exactly proportional 
to tho number of teeth contained by each. Consequently, in 
order to construct designs for couples of toothed wheels, it is 
necessary to know — tho number of teeth of each, and the radius 
of ono or other of them ; or the radii or diameters of both, and tho 
number of teeth of one; or tho distance between their centres, and 
the radius or number of teeth of one; or finally, the number of 
revolutions of each in tho same time, and the distance between 



68 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



their centres, or the radius and number of teeth of one of them. 
In the rules and data at the end of this chapter, will be found the 
solution of the several problems involved in these various cases. 

If we assume the following data, A B = 240, and B C = 400, 
these being the respective radii of the pitch circles of two right 
wheels, and n = 24, the number of teeth of the pinion — we at 
once ascertain the number of teeth, N, of the spur-wheel, by the 
following proportional formula: — 

A B : B C :: n : N, or 240 : 400 :: 24 : N = 40. 

Then describe the pitch circles of the radii, a b and b c, and 
divide them respectively into 24 and 40 equal parts, thereby 
>btaining the pitch, or the central point of each tooth, which is 
exactly the same on both pitch circles. Next subdivide the pitch 
into four equal parts, to obtain the centres of the intervals, and, at 
the same time, the points through which the flanks of the teeth 
pass. If, with the line, a b, on the line of the centres, a c, as a 
diameter, we describe a circle, the centre of which is at o, and 
suppose this circle to roll round the pitch circle, dbe, of the 
spur-wheel, the point b, at present in contact, will generate an 
epicyeloid, Br, as shown previously in reference to fig. 1 ; and 
this curve is the one proper to give to the side of the teeth of the 
spur-wheel, and it is accordingly repeated symmetrically on each 
side of the several teeth, as shown in the diagram. If, further, 
we suppose the same circle of the radius, o b, to roll round the 
interior of the pitch circle, g b h, of the pinion, we shall obtain 
the internal epicycloid (sometimes called hypocycloid), b o, as 
already explained in reference to fig. 3, Plate XYLTL, and a por- 
tion, b a, of this, forms the flank of the pinion tooth. 

Supposing the curve, b c, to form a part of the wheel, turning 
about the centre, c, in the direction of the arrow, i, it will fulfil 
the condition of impelling the flank, b a, which forms part of the 
pinion, so as to turn about the centre, a, in the like unif ormity. 
In other words, the space passed through by the point, b, on the 
pitch circle, gbh, shall be exactly the same as that passed through 
by the same point, b, considered as belonging to the spur-wheel, 
on the pitch circle, e b d. 

210. In proceeding to the determination of the length to give to 
the tooth, it is first to be observed that the epicycloidal curve 
should be sufficiently long to bear upon the side of the tooth, 
through an extent of circumferential movement equal to the len^h 
of the pitch from the line of centres ; that is to say, until the flank, 
at present in the position, b a, shall have arrived to the position, 
c d. At this moment, it will be observed that the curve, b f, 
has reached the position, bf, and is in contact with the flank of the 
pinion tooth in the point,/, on the circumference of the generating 
circle of the radius, a o. It will thus be obvious that the point,/, 
may be obtained by simply cutting off, on the generating circle, an 
arc, b/, equal to the length of the pitch. Through this point,/ 
describe a circle having c for its centre, and it will cut all the teeth 
at the proper length. 

The depth of the intervals is theoretically determined by 
describing, with the centre, a, a circle tangential to the first; but in 
practice, as it is necessary to leave a slight space between the ends 
of the teeth and the bottoms of the intervals into which these work, 
the circle in question is described with a somewhat smaller radius, 



211. Hence it is manifest, on the supposition that the spur-wheel 
is intended always to be the driver, without being driven at any time 
by the pinion, the teeth of the spur-wheel would only require to be 
of the form indicated at J, and those of the pinion, like the portion of 
a tooth, k, slightly tinted for the sake of distinction ; but generally, 
and for obvious reasons, all spur gear is so constructed as to act 
reciprocally, and equally well, whichever be the driver, and we 
must, therefore, shape the teeth of the pinion, so that it may, in 
turn, perform that function. 

With this view, describe a circle with the centre, o', of the radius, 
B c, taken as a diameter ; and suppose this circle to roll round the 
pitch circle, ebg, of the pinion, the point, b, at present in con- 
tact, will generate the epicycloid, b l, which is the proper curve 
to be given to the teeth of the pinion. The same point, b, con- 
sidered as on the spur-wheel, will, as we have seen, generate a 
straight line, b' o', when rolling in the same manner round the 
interior of the circle, e b d, and this line forms the flank of the 
tooth of the spur-wheel. The operation proceeds in the same 
manner as for the pinion, the length of the teeth of which is deter- 
mined by making the arc, b/, equal to the length of the pitch, and 
describing, with the centre, a, a circle passing through the point,/. 

The depth of the intervals of the spur-wheel is, in like manner, 
limited by a circle described with the centre, c, and radius, c g, 
which is somewhat short of being a tangent to the external circle 
of the pinion, so as to allow a little play to the teeth in their 
passage, as already explained. In this manner are obtained the 
complete forms of the teeth, which are regular, symmetrical, and 
similar to each other, and satisfy the conditions of reciprocal 
gearing. 

In the graphic operations here discussed, we have supposed the 
intervals between the teeth to be exactly equal in width to the 
teeth themselves; but as, in practice, it is necessary to allow of 
some play between the teeth, in order that they may work into 
each other with facility, this object is attained by reducing the 
thickness of the teeth a little ; and in the drawing, when the scale 
is not very large, it will be sufficient to delineate the ink lines just 
within the thickness of the pencil lines. Where it is wished to 
be more precise, this allowance may be calculated at about -Jjfh 
or -gLth of the pitch. To give strength to the teeth, the interior 
angles of the intervals are rounded, as shown at each tooth in 
fig. 4. 

When the pinion is but of small diameter, the web, m, which 
carries the teeth, is cast solid with the boss, the interval being 
filled up with a disc ; but when the wheel is larger, as in the case 
of the spur-wheel, the web, ai', is attached to the boss, p / , by arms, 
q, which are strengthened by feathers, rounded in at the angles, 
as represented in fig. 4. 

DELINEATION OF A COTTFLE OF WHEELS GEARING INTERNALLY. 

Figuee 5. — Plate XIX. 

212. The principles observed in determining the relative num- 
bers of the teeth, with reference to the example just discussed, 
apply in like manner to the case before us ; that is, such numbers 
must be in the exact ratios of the diameters of the pitch circles. 
The curvature of the teeth is also determinable by means of the 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



69 



same operations, modified to suit the different positions of the 
parts with respect to each other. Thus the curve, b l, of the 
pinion tooth, is generated by the rolling round the pitch circle, 
g B H, of the circle described with the centre, o, and radius, o b, 
equal to the half of b c, the radius of the pitch circle, d b e, of the 
larger wheel. This is an application of the operations explained 
in reference to fig. 3. The flanks, b a, or the sides of the teeth, 
are obtained by simply drawing radii, or lines converging in the 
point, c. 

In the same manner, the curve, b f, of the teeth of the large 
wheel, is generated by rolling along the interior of its pitch circle, 
b D e, a circle described from the centre, o', and radius, b o', equal 
to half the radius, b a, of the pitch circle, gbe, of the pinion. 
These curves being obtained, the outlines of the teeth are com- 
pleted in the manner explained in reference to fig. 4. It may, 
however, be observed that, in the diagram, fig. 5, though the teeth 
might be cut off by a circle passing through the point, /, and 
described with the centre, A, they are prolonged beyond that, so 
that the teeth remain longer in contact, and a greater number of 
teeth are, consequently, engaged at one time, allowing the strain 
to be distributed over a greater number of points. It is the fact 
of the curvatures of the two lines of teeth being in the same direc- 
tion, which admits of a greater number of teeth being engaged at 
once, without that increase of friction, and other disadvantages, 
which would result from such an arrangement with wheels like 
fig. 4. 

THE PRACTICAL DELINEATION OF A COUPLE OF SPUE-WHEELS. 

Plate XX. 

213. In the cases treated of in the preceding sections, which 
comprehend the general principles involved in rack and wheel 
gearing, we have assumed that the rack and pinion, or pinion and 
spur-wheel, are constructed of the same material, and in this case 
the thickness of the teeth is the same in any two working together. 
It very often happens, however, in actual construction, that one 
of the two has wooden, and the other cast-iron teeth, or of other 
dissimilar material. When this is the case, the thickness of the 
one description must necessarily be greater than that of the other, 
to compensate for the difference in the strength of the materials. 
The pitch, however, will still be the same for both wheels ; for, 
since the intervals on one wheel correspond to the teeth on the 
other, a tooth and an interval on one must obviously be equal to 
an interval and a tooth on the other. A couple of wheels of this 
description are represented in plan and elevation, in figs. 1 and 2. 

We here assume the wheels to be in the ratio to one another of 
3:4; whence, giving the pinion 36 teeth, the spur-wheel must 
have 48. After dividing the pitch circle of the spur-wheel, drawn 
with the radius, c b, into 96 equal parts, the points of division 
representing the centres of the teeth and of the intervals, and the 
pitch circle of the pinion drawn with the radius, a b, likewise, into 
72 equal parts — with the centres, o and o', describe the circlos 
which generate the epicycloidal curves, b f and b l. Take if of 
the pitch, b c, for the thickness of the wooden tooth, d e, and 5 " r 
for that of the cast-iron tooth, allowing tho remaining ^\ for tho 
play in working. Next draw a series of radii, to indicate the 



flanks of the teeth, both of the pinion and spur-wheel, and at the 
point of their junction with the pitch circle, draw the curved por- 
tion of each, with the aid of a small pattern or template, cut to 
the curves, b l and b f ; and, finally, limit the lengths of the teeth 
and the depths of the hollows in the manner already pointed out, 
in reference to Plate XIX. 

As draughtsmen are generally satisfied with representing the 
epicycloidal curves by arcs of circles which almost coincide with 
them, and nearly fulfil the same conditions, such arcs must be 
tangential to the radial sides of the teeth at then points of inter- 
section with the pitch circle. They are determined in the follow- 
ing manner : — Let fig. 10 represent one of the pinion teeth, drawn 
to a larger scale. Through the point of contact, b, draw a tan- 
gent, b o, to the pitch circle; then bisect the chord, b n, which 
passes through the extremities of the curve, by a perpendicular, 
which will cut the tangent, b o, in the point, o. This is the centre 
of the arc, b m n, which very nearly coincides with the epicycloidal 
curve. The same arc is repeated for each side of all the teeth of 
the pinion, the radius, b o, being preserved throughout. An 
analogous operation determines the radius of the arc to be substi- 
tuted for the curve in the teeth of the spur-wheel. 

It is generally advisable to make wooden teeth about three- 
fourths as long as the pitch, and cast-iron teeth about two-thirds 
as long. In no case, however, should the lengths of the teeth in 
the two wheels geared together be less than those obtained by 
calculation, and determined by the points, /, f, situated on the 
circles described with the centres, o, o', by which the epicycloids 
are generated. The ratio of the curved external portion, n m, of 
the tooth to the flank, n p, is 4 : 5. In other words, the whole 
height or length of the tooth being divided into 9 equal parts, 4 of 
these are to be taken for the length of the curved portion, and 5 
for the rectilinear flanks. When the teeth are of cast-iron, the 
thickness, p q, of the web should be equal to the thickness, r s, of 
the tooth. Sometimes it is made only £ths of this ; but in that 
case it is strengthened by a feather on the interior. 

For wooden-toothed wheels, since it is necessary that the tenon, 
t, of the tooth be firmly secured, the web is made of a thickness, 
p q, often double that of the tooth. The tenons of the teeth must 
be adjusted very carefully and accurately in the web. They are 
made with a slight taper, and are secured on the interior of the 
. web either by iron pegs, as at u, passing through them, or by a 
series of wooden keys or wedges, i>, driven in between them, and 
forming strong dove-tail joints. Theso two methods of fixing the 
teeth are shown at different parts on fig. 1, and more in detail in 
fig. 7. Thore is a third modification, which also possesses some 
advantages. We have represented it at t, fig. 3, whonce it will 
be seen that it consists in forming the teeth with a couple of 
shoulders, z, which allow of tho tenons, I, being made much 
stronger, and also take away thereby some of the weight ol' metal, 
two objects of great importance. 

Tho width, x y, of tho tooth is equal to two or three times their 
pitch. In wheels entirely of cast-iron, tho web is of tho same 
width as tho tooth; but it is much broader when tho tooth are oi' 

wood, for it requires to ho mortised, to receive tho tenons of tho 
teeth, and should have a width equal to that of the teeth, plus mi 
amount equal to once and a half or twice their thickness. ^Vo 



70 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



have already mentioned, that in wheels of moderate size, the 
web, m', is attached to the boss, p 7 , by arms, q. The number of 
these arms varies, 4, 6, or 8 being used according to the diameter. 
In the present case the wheels have six arms ; this number, amongst 
other reasons, being more particularly convenient, because the 
number of teeth are divisible by 6. Whence it follows, that the 
feathers which strengthen the arms on either side of the wheel, 
can be made to lie between two of the teeth, at each of the six 
points of attachment to the web. 

The feathers are joined to the body of each arm by cavetto or 
concave quarter-round mouldings, with or without fillets, as indi- 
cated in figs. 5 and 6, which reoresent sections of the arms taken 
through 1—2, 1—2, in fig. 1 

At other times the feathers are united to the body of the arm 
by plain chamfer portions, as shown in fig. 8 ; or, even more suwply 
still, and without filling up the angle formed, as in fig. 9, the 
feathers being united, as it were, to the body of the arm without 
any additional moulding. 

In all cases, however, these feathers are made with a taper, 
being thicker at their point of union with the body, and gradually 
decreasing in thickness outwardly. 

Figs. 3 and 4 represent cross sections of the wheels, taken 
through the irregular line, 3 — 4 — 5, on fig. 1. We may observe, 
in reference to these sections, that at the upper part of each the 
plane of section is supposed to be parallel to the arm, or the arm is, 
as it were, turned so as to be parallel to the plane, c c', or a a', 
fig. 1, in order that it may be projected in the sectional view with- 
out foreshortening. At the lower parts of these views, however, 
the arms are projected, as in the oblique position represented in 
fig. 1. 

In this description of drawings, these oblique projections are 
generally dispensed with, and are, indeed, avoided, as they do not 
readily give the exact measurements of the parts represented. 

The operations indicated on the figures complete the general 
design of Plate XX., whether of the plan, elevation, or sections. 



THE DELINEATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN 
PATTERNS FOR TOOTHED WHEELS. 

PLATE XXI. 

SPUR-WHEEL PATTERNS. 

214. If, as we have already endeavoured to impress upon the 
student, great care is required in the construction of wooden pat- 
terns in general, above all is this care and extreme accuracy called 
for in the execution of the patterns of toothed wheels, because of 
the great exactitude absolutely needed in the proportions of the 
various parts — as that, for example, between their diameters and 
numbers of teeth. 

The pattern-maker must make allowance, not only for the shrink- 
ing of the cast-iron, but also for the quantity of metal to be taken 
away by turning and finishing afterwards. Moreover, the pattern, 
which is necessarily in many pieces, must be joined together so 
strongly and solidly, that it may not run the risk of changing its 
shape during the construction of the mould. 

For wooden-toothed wheels, the web must be pierced with a 



number of openings or mortices to receive the tenons of the teeth. 
But in place of producing these mortices on the wooden patterns — 
which system, besides weakening it, would render the formation of 
the mould much more difficult — small projections corresponding to 
the teeth are fixed externally to the web. These projections form 
sockets in the mould, in which the actual loam cores are fixed, 
which form the mortices when the piece is cast. 

Bearing in mind these various considerations, we may proceed 
to the construction of the patterns for two spur-wheels, such as are 
represented in Plate XX. 

PATTERN OF THE PINION. 

215. Figs. 1 and 2 show a half plan and a vertical section of 
the wooden pattern of the pinion. It is composed of many prin- 
cipal pieces — namely, the web, or crown, and its teeth ; the boss, 
with its core-pieces ; and the arms, or spokes, with their feathers. 
We shall proceed to examine these various parts in succession. 

WEB OR CROWN. 

The pattern-maker takes planks, of from 25 to 30 millimetres 
in thickness, and cuts out of it a series of arcs, a, of a uniform 
radius, corresponding to that to be given to the pinion, 'with the 
addition of the allowance for shrinkage and loss from finishing. 
These arcs are built up like brickwork, the joints of one layer, or 
series, being opposite to solid portions of the contiguous layers, 
as shown in fig. 3. This arrangement prevents the liability to 
warp or change the form, from variation in the humidity of the 
atmosphere, as would be the case were the crown made of a single 
piece. 

This piece being finished and glued together, and the joints 
quite dry, is put into a lathe, and there turned quite true, both 
externally and internally. The two surfaces are here made per- 
fectly parallel, and the whole is reduced to the exact dimensions 
determined on, and shown upon a large working drawing of the 
actual size, previously prepared, generally by the pattern-maker 
himself. 

At this stage, the external surface of the crown is divided off 
by fines, showing the positions of the teeth, which are then some- 
times simply screwed or nailed on. It is, however, much prefer- 
able, and conduces very much to the solidity of the wheel, to cut 
out grooves of a trifling depth on the periphery, into which the 
teeth are fixed, being formed with a dovetail for that purpose, as 
shown at b, in fig. 1. 

BOSS. 

The boss is made in two pieces, each one solid block of wood, 
d, except when the wheel is of a large size, in which case the boss 
requires to be built up of several pieces. 

These blocks are each turned separately to the exact dimen- 
sions given in the plans, and they secure between them the thick- 
ness of the body part of the arm. 

ARMS OR SPOKES. 

The body of each arm, c, fig. 4, is also cut out of planks of a 
uniform thickness, being formed not only to the external contour 
of that part of the arm which is afterwards the only part visible 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



71 



in the casting', but also comprising, above and beyond this, the 
projections by which, in the pattern, it is attached to the boss on 
the one hand, and to the crown on the other. The extremity, a, 
of the boss end of the arm is in the form of a sector, correspond- 
ing to a sixth part of the circle of the boss, the pinion having six 
arms ; the lateral facets, b, of this part are grooved out, to receive 
small tongue-pieces, or keys, c, fig. 1, so as to form a strong joint 
when glued together. The other extremity, d, of the arm is cut 
circularly, to the form of the crown, or web, into which it is fitted, 
penetrating to a slight extent, the crown being previously formed 
with a socket to receive it. 

Next, the feathers have to be attached to the body, c, of the 
arm. These feathers, b, are each cut out in separate pieces, to 
the shape indicated in fig. 5 : they have supplementary projec- 
tions, e and /, at their opposite extremities, whereby they are fixed 
into the crown and boss. When all these feathers are in their 
place, and the arms glued into the crown, the two portions, d, d, 
of the boss are fixed to them, the grooves for the reception of the 
ends of the feathers being glued, as well as the other parts, to 
give greater solidity. Finally, the boss is surmounted by the 
conical projecting pieces, f, f, which serve to produce in the mould 
the cavities, or sockets, which retain the loam core in position, the 
core being provided to produce the eye of the wheel, into which 
the shaft is fitted. 

To give compactness and strength to the whole, a bolt, g, is 
passed through the centre ; and this method of securing permits 
of the core projections, f, f, being changed for larger or smaller 
ones, if desired, without having to pull the entire wheel to pietes. 
[f, to add to the elegance of the shape of the wheel, it is wished to 
ornament the arms with mouldings, as* at i, these are applied at 
the angles of junction of the feathers with the body of the arm. 
These are simply glued or nailed on. The sectional view, fig. 6, 
shows the form and position of these mouldings. 

It is to be observed that, in wheels of a moderate size, when 
cast-iron teeth are to work on cast-iron, they are at once cast to 
the exact shape, and the pattern is constructed accordingly ; but 
it is almost always indispensable, where cast-iron and wooden 
teeth have to work together, to finish and reduce the former after 
being cast ; and the projections, b, on the pattern answering to 
them, must consequently be made of larger proportions every way, 
to provide for the quantity of metal taken away in the finisliing 
process. 

PATTERN OF THE WOODEN-TOOTHED SPUR-WHEEL. 

216. Figs. 7, 8, and 9 represent, in elevation, plan, and vertical 
section, the wooden pattern of the spur-wheel, which gears with 
the pinion just described. It consists, like that wheel, of the 
crown or web, the boss, and the arms ; and these various parts, 
which are designated by letters corresponding to those employed 
in the preceding example, are constructed exactly in the sumo 
manner. 

There is, however, an essential difference in the exterior of t ho 
crown : in place of this carrying the projections, b, cut to the 
shape of the teeth, and such as will actually bo produced on tho 
casting, it has other projections, b', of a simpler form, intended to 
produce in the mould the sockets for receiving the core-pieces 



which form the mortises in the casting, to receive the tenons of 
the wooden teeth. These projections are let into the crown, or 
simply applied thereto, and fixed by nails, as at I, or by screws, a3 
at m, the latter method being preferable, as it has the advantage 
of permitting the number of teeth to be changed without injury to 
themselves or to the crown. In the wooden pattern, the length 
of the projections, b', is carried to the edge of the face of the 
crown, on that side which descends into the lower half of the 
mould-frame, to allow of the more accurate adjustment of the core- 
pieces, and also to facilitate the recovery of the pattern from the 
mould. These core-pieces, however, are so formed as to make the 
mortises no wider than is necessary, and to leave a sufficient thick- 
ness of metal for the strength of the crown, as already pointed out 
in reference to Plate XX. 

CORE-MOULDS. 

217. The core-pieces for the mortises should not only be placed 
at equal distances apart throughout the circumference of the crown, 
but they must all also be of precisely the same form and dimen- 
sions throughout, so that the mortises may be perfectly equal. 
With this view, a wooden core-box or mould is made ; and there 
are several methods of doing this. Thus, fig. 10 represents a face 
view, and fig. 11 a horizontal section, through the line 3 — 4 in 
fig. 10, of one form of core-mould, consisting of a single piece. The 
portion, n, of the cavity corresponds to the projecting core-piece, 
b', outside the crown, and the portion marked o, to the mortise, or 
hollow socket, in the crown : this last has the same section as the 
crown in the width of the cut-out part. The moulder fills the 
cavity of the core-mould with loam, previously prepared, and after 
pressing it well in, levels it off with a straight-edged doctor or 
scraper ; he finally inverts the mould, thus releasing the core com- 
plete. The operation is repeated as many times as there are teeth ; 
and when the cores are all dry, they are placed with great care in 
the mould, their supplementary projections, b', being let into the 
sockets formed to receive them — thereby insuring the accuracy of 
their adjustment. 

Figs. 12, 13, and 14, show another construction of wooden core- 
mould, formed in two separate pieces, h and i. These have be- 
tween them the cavity, n o, corresponding to that in the one just 
described. In this last case, the surface of the core which re- 
quires to be levelled off with a scraper, is only at one of the extre- 
mities instead of on the lateral faces, as in the other, and the cores 
are released by separating the two pieces, h, i, which are rendered 
capable of accurate adjustment to each other by means of marking- 
pins, k. 

To return to the wheel itself: when it is of very large dimen- 
sions, the blocks, d, of the boss are secured together by two or 
more bolts, g, in placo of one. 

The mould for tho wheel is in two pieces, the lower frame, or 
"drag," being let into tho ground in the moulding shop ; the upper 
frame or top part, is moveable, and it will bo obvious that \eiv 
great eare is required to lift this off the pattern, so as not to injure 
the regularity and sharpness of the impression; and for this pur- 
pose, sufficient " draw " or toper must be given to the various parls, 
as the crown, the boss, and the feathers on the arms, as already 
pointed out. 



72 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



When the patterns are heavy, two screw-staples, or " draw- 
plates," l, fig. 1, 8, and 15, of iron or brass, are countersunk into 
the crown, and into these draw-handles are screwed, by which the 
pattern is lifted out of the mould. 

In figs. 1, 2, 8, and 9, are combined, in single views, several 
different projections, to avoid repetitions of the diagrams, and to 
simplify the whole drawing, and bring it into a small space. This 
system is very much used in drawiugs, or plans, made for actual 
construction. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

TOOTHED GEARING. 

218. It has been already laid down, as a fundamental rule, that 
in order to work well, all toothed wheels coupled together must 
have the same ratio between the numbers of their teeth as between 
their diameters. 

It follows from this principle, that when we know the radii of 
the pitch circles of two wheels, and the number of teeth of one of 
them, we can determine that of the other, and reciprocally. 

Thus, putting n to represent the number of teeth of a wheel of 
the radius, r ; and n to represent the number of teeth of a wheel 
of the radius, r, we have the direct proportionals, n : n : : r : r ; 
whence we can, at any time, ascertain any one of the terms when 
the other three are known. 

First Example. — Let the radius of the pitch circle of a spur- 
wheel be 12 inches, and the number of teeth on it 75, what should 
be the number of teeth on a pinion gearing with it, the radius of 
the pitch circle of which is 8 inches 1 

We have 

75 : n :: 12 : 8; whence 
75 x 8 



12 



= 50 teeth. 



Second Example. — Let 75 and 50, respectively, be the number 
of the teeth of a spur-wheel and pinion, and 12 inches the radius 
of the pitch circle of the former, the radius of the pitch circle of 
the latter may be found by means of the proportion — 
75 : 50 :: 12 : r; whence, 
50 x 12 



75 



8 inches. 



219. The velocities of rotation, or the numbers of revolutions 
of the shafts of a spur-wheel and pinion in gear with each other, 
are in the inverse ratio of the respective diameters, radii, or num- 
bers of teeth of the two. 

Consequently, putting V to represent the velocity of rotation of 
the pinion shaft, the radius of the pitch circle of which equals r, 
and the number of the teeth n, and putting v to represent the velo- 
city of the spur-wheel shaft, of which the pitch circle radius equals 
R, and number of teeth N, we have the inverted proportions — 

V : v :: r : R, 
and 

V : v :: n : N. 

In either of these proportions, we can determine, as in the former 
example, any one term when the three others are known. 



First Example. — A spur-wheel, the pitch circle radius of which 
is 10 inches, has a velocity of 25 revolutions per minute ; what is 
the pitch circle radius of a pinion to gear with it, and make 60 
revolutions in the same time ? By the inverse proportion, 



whence, 



25 : 60 :: r : 10; 



25 x 10 , . , 
r = — — — == 4£ inches, 



60 



the pitch circle radius of the pinion. 

A spur-wheel has 60 teeth, and is required to run at 25 revolu- 
tions per minute, and at the same time to drive a pinion at the rate 
of 75 revolutions per minute, what should ^e the number of teeth 
of the latter ? 
Here, 

75 : 25 :: 60 : n; 
whence, 

25 x 60 



« = 



75 



= 20, 



the number of teeth the pinion must have. 

These principles apply equally to pulleys or drums put in com- 
munication with one another by cords or belts, and known as belt- 
gearing. 

Sometimes, in systems of geared spur-wheels, all that is known 
is the distance apart of their centres, the number of teeth which 
they are to carry, or the number of their revolutions in the same 
time. In this case we have, on the one hand, an inverse proportion 
between the distance of their centres, the sum of their revolutions, 
and between their respective radii and revolutions; and, on the 
other hand, a direct proportion between the distance of the centres, 
the sum of the teeth on both wheels, and their respective radii, oi 
the number of teeth of each. 

Let D be the distance apart of the centres of a spur-wheel and 
pinion of the respective radii, R, r, and number of teeth, N, n, or 
the reciprocal velocities, v and V; we have first the following 
inverse proportion, 

D: V+u:: R: V; 

and, secondly, the direct proportion, 

D : N + n :: N : R. 
First Example. — Let 45 inches be the distance between the 
eentres of a spur-wheel and pinion, the former of which is to make 
22 revolutions per minute to the other's 15£. what should be their 
respective radii? 
We have, first, 

45 : 22 + 155 :: R : 22; 
whence, 

45 x 22 
R= 2"2TT5 ; 5 = 26 ' 4mcheS ' 
and 

45 : 22 + 15-5 :: r: 15-5; 
whence, 

45 x 15-5 



22 + 15-5 



18-6 inches. 



When the pitch circle radius of one of the wheels is ascertained, 
it is evidently unnecessary to search for the other radius by means 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



73 



of the second proportion, for it is sufficient to subtract the one 
found from the sum of both ; thus, 

45 — 26-4= 18-6; or, 
45 — 18-6 = 26-4. 
Second Example. — The distance, d, between the two centres 
being- known =45 inches, and one wheel carrying 31 teeth and 
the other 44, what are their respective radii 1 
We have here, in the first place, 

45 : 31 + 44 :: R : 44; 
whence, 

45 x 44 







31 + 44 ~~ "" "*' 


and 




45 : 31 +44 :: r : 31; 


whence, 




45 x 31 
J - = 31 + 44 = 18 - 6 ' 


or, more 


simply, 





r = 45 — 26-4= 18-6 inches. 

In like manner, the respective radii of a spur-wheel and pinion, 
to gear together, may be determined geometrically, when the dis- 



tance between their centres is known, as well as the numbers of 
revolutions of each, by the following rule : — 

Divide the distance into as many equal parts as there are of any 
measure contained exactly in the sum of the velocities, such mea- 
sure being also contained exactly any number of times in each of 
the velocities alone. Then, for the pinion radius, take as many of 
these measures as are contained in the lesser velocity, and for the 
radius of the spur-wheel, the remainder of them. 

Example. — Let 16 inches be the distance between the centres 
of a spur-wheel and pinion which make 6 and 4 revolutions re- 
spectively, or any equi-multiples or equi-submultiples of these, as 
12 and 8, or 3 and 2. Divide the distance into 10 equal parts, 
and take 4 of these for the pinion radius, and 6 for the spur-wheel 
radius. 

This rule is of very simple application when the ratios of the 
numbers of revolutions are whole numbers, such as 1 : 4, or 2 : 5 ; 
for all that is necessary is to add the two together, to divide the 
distance between the centres to correspond, and to take the re- 
spective numbers of measures for each wheel. 

The following table will be of great assistance in the solution 
of various problems connected with systems of gearing, when the 
number of teeth, the pitch, or the radius are known. 



TABLE FOR CALCULATING THE NUMBERS OF TEETH AND DIAMETERS OF SPUR GEAR, FROM THE PITCH, OR VICE VERSA. 



Number. 


Coefficient. 


Number. 


Coefficient. 


Number. 


Coefficient. 


Number. 


Coefficient. 


Number. 


Coefficient 


10 


3-183 


39 


12-414 


68 


21-644 


97 


30-875 


126 


40-106 


11 


3-501 


40 


12-732 


69 


21-963 


98 


31193 


127 


40-424 


12 


3-820 


41 


13-050 


70 


22-281 


99 


31-512 


128 


40-742 


13 


4-138 


42 


13-369 


71 


22-599 


100 


31-830 


129 


41-061 


14 


4-456 


43 


13-687 


72 


22-917 


101 


32-148 


130 


41-379 


15 


4-774 


44 


14-005 


73 


23-236 


102 


32-467 


131 


41-697 


16 


5-093 


45 


14-323 


74 


23-554 


103 


32-785 


132 


42-016 


17 


5-411 


46 


14-642 


75 


23-872 


104 


33-103 


133 


42-334 


18 


5-729 


47 


14-960 


76 


24-191 


105 


33-421 


134 


42-652 


19 


6-048 


48 


15-278 


77 


24-509 


106 


33-740 


135 


42-970 


20 


6-366 


49 


15-597 


78 


24-827 


107 


34-058 


136 


43289 


21 


6-684 


50 


15-915 


79 


25-146 


108 


34-376 


137 


43-607 


22 


7-002 


51 


16-233 


80 


25-464 


109 


34-695 


138 


43-925 


23 


7-321 


52 


16-552 


81 


25-782 


110 


35013 


139 


44-244 


24 


7-639 


53 


16-870 


82 


26-100 


111 


35-331 


140 


44-562 


25 


7-957 


54 


17-188 


83 


26-419 


112 


35-650 


141 


44-880 


26 


8-276 


55 


17-506 


84 


26-737 


113 


35-968 


142 


45199 


27 


8-594 


56 


17-825 


85 


27-055 


114 


36-286 


143 


45517 


28 


8-912 


57 


18-143 


86 


27-374 


115 


36-604 


144 


45-835 


29 


9-231 


58 


18-461 


87 


27-692 


116 


36-923 


145 


46153 


30 


9-549 


59 


18-780 


88 


28-010 


117 


37-241 


146 


46472 


31 


9-867 


60 


19098 


89 . 


28-329 


118 


37-559 


147 


46-790 


32 


10186 


61 


19-416 


90 


28-647 


119 


37-878 


148 


47-108 


33 


10-504 


62 


19-734 


91 


28-965 


120 


38-196 


149 


47-427 


34 


10-822 


63 


20-053 


92 


29-284 


121 


38-514 


150 


47-745 


35 


11-140 


64 


20-371 


93 


29-602 


122 


38-833 


151 


48-063 


36 


11-459 


65 


20-689 


94 


29-920 


123 


39151 


152 


48-382 


37 


11-777 


06 


21-008 


95 


30-238 


124 


39-469 


153 


48-700 


38 


12095 


67 


21-326 


96 


30-557 


125 


39-788 


154 


49020 



RULES CONNECTED WITH THE PRECEDING TABLE. 

I. To find the diameter of a spur-whool, when the number and 
pitch of the teeth are known. 



Multiply the coefficient in the tabic, corresponding to tfic number of 
teeth, by the given pitch in fat, inches, met res, or other measures, and the 
product will be the diameter infect, inches, or mitres, to corres}\<nd. 



74 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



First Example. — What is the diameter of a spur-wheel, of 63 
teeth, having a pitch of 11 inches? 

Opposite the number 63, in the table, we find the coefficient, 
20-053. Then— 

20-053 x 1-5 = 30-08 inches, 
the diameter of the spur-wheel. 

Second Example. — What are the diameters of two wheels, of 41 
and 150 teeth respectively, their pitch being £ inch? 

On the one hand, we have 

13-05 x -75 = 9-7875 inches, 
the diameter of the pinion of 41 teeth ; and on the other, 

47-745 x -75 = 35-8 inches, 
the diameter of the spur-wheel of 150 teeth. 

H. To find the pitch of a spur-wheel, when the diameter and 
number of teeth are known. 

Divide the given diameter by the coefficient in the table correspond- 
ing to the number of the teeth, and the quotient will be the pitch 
sought. 

First Example. — What is the pitch of a wheel of 30-08 inches 
diameter, and of 63 teeth ? 

Here — 

30-08 : 20-053 = 15 inch, 
the pitch required. 

Second Example. — It is required to construct a spur-wheel, of 
126 teeth, to work with the preceding, what must be its diameter? 

Here — 

1-5 X 40-106= 60-159 inches, 
the diameter of a wheel of 126 teeth, and of the same pitch. 

III. To find the number of teeth of a wheel, when the pitch 
and diameter are known. 

Divide the given diameter by the given pitch, the number in the 
table corresponding to the quotient will be the number of teeth sought. 

If the quotient is not in the table, take the number correspond- 
ing to that nearest to it. 

First Example. — The diameter of a spur-wheel is 30-08 inches, 
and the pitch of the teeth is 1-5 inch, what number of teeth should 
the wheel have ? 

30-8 : 1-5 = 20-53; 
which quotient corresponds to 63 teeth. 

Second Example. — What should be the number of teeth of a 
pinion, the diameter of winch is 875 millimetres, and which is 
intended to gear with a rack, of which the pitch is 25 millimetres ? 
875 : 25 = 35. 

The number most nearly corresponding to this is 110, the 
number of teeth to be given to the pinion. 

ANGULAR AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL VELOCITY OF WHEELS. 

519. When it is known what is the angular velocity of the shaft 
of a fly-wheel, spur-wheel, or pulley, the circumferential velocity 
may be found by the following rule : — 

Multiply the circumference by the number of revolutions per 
minute, and the product will give the space passed through in the 
same time ; and this product being divided by 60, will give the velo- 
city of the circumference per second. 

Example. — Let the diameter of a wheel be 4 feet, and the 



number of its revolutions per minute 20, what is the velocity at 
the circumference ? 

The circumference of the wheel =#x 3-1416= 12-5664; 
then 

12-5664 x 20 = 251-328 feet, 
the space passed through per minute by any point in the circum- 
ference ; and 

251-328 
-60-= 4 ' 2 ' 
the velocity in feet per second. 

When the velocity at the circumference is known, the angular 
velocity, or the number of turns in a given time, may be ascer- 
tained by the following rule : — 

Divide the circumferential velocity by the circumference, and the 
quotient icill be the angular velocity, or number of revolutions in the 
given time. 

In the preceding case, 4-2 feet being the circumferential velocity 
per second, and 4 feet the diameter, we have 
4-2 
4 x 3-1416 ~ " 334 ' 
the angular velocity per second ; and 

•334 x 60 = 20, 
the number of revolutions per minute. 

In practice, it is easy to ascertain the velocity of a wheel, the 
motion of which is uniform. With this view, a point is marked 
with chalk on the rim of the wheel, and note is taken of how often 
this point passes a fixed point of observation in a given time ; then 
this number of revolutions is multiplied by the circumference 
described by the marked point, and the product divided by the 
duration of the observation expressed in seconds. The result 
will be the velocity of the circumference of the wheel. Every 
other point on the wheel will have a different velocity, propor- 
tioned to its distance from the centre of motion. 

Example. — A wheel, 2 feet in diameter, having, according to 
observation, made 75 revolutions per minute, what is its circum- 
ferential velocity (per second) ? 

Tr 75 X 3-14 X 2 

V= . — = 7-83 feet, 

circumferential velocity of the wheel. 

Reciprocally, when the circumferential velocity (per second) is 
known, the number of revolutions per minute is found by means 
of the formula — 

V x 60 
314 xD ; 
or, with the data of the preceding case, 
7-83 x 60 



N: 



75 revolutions per minute. 



3-14 x 2 

When several spur-wheels or pulleys are placed on the same 
shaft, the circumferential velocity of every one of them is found 
in the same manner, by multiplying the number of revolutions by 
the respective circumferences, and dividing the products by 60. 

Example. — Three wheels or pulleys, a, b, c, are fixed on one 
shaft; the radius of the pulley, a, is equal to VI feet; that of the 
pulley, b, 1-6 feet; and that of the pulley, c, 2-15 feet; and the 
shaft makes 12 turns per minute, — what is the circumferential 
velocity of these three pulleys ? 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



75 



For the pulley, a, we have — 



6-28 x 11 x 12 „ „ . ± 

V = — = T38 feet per minute; 



6« 



for the pulley, b- 



6-28 x 1-6 x 12 „ „ A 
V' = — = 2 feet ; 



60 



and for the pulley, c — 



628 x 2-15 x 12 „ „ 1 
V" = — = 2-7 feet. 



DIMENSIONS OF GEARING. 

220. In designing tooth-gearing of all descriptions, it is neces- 
sary to determine — first, the strength and dimensions of the teeth ; 
second, the dimensions of the web which carries the teeth ; and, 
third, the dimensions of the arms. 

THICKNESS OF THE TEETH. 

221. The resistance opposed to the motion of the wheel or the 
load, may be considered as a force applied to the crown, to pre- 
vent its turning, and the power, during its greater strain, as applied 
to the extremities of the teeth. The teeth then should be con- 
sidered as solids fixed at one end, and loaded at the other ; and 
the equation of equilibrium for them is — 

Pxh=-kxfxw; 
in which formula, P signifies the pressure in kilogrammes at the 
extremity of the tooth ; h, the amount of projection of the teeth 
from the web in centimetres ; k, a numerical coefficient ; t, the thick- 
ness of the teeth in centimetres ; w, their width in centimetres. 

In this formula, the numerical coefficient, k, which is calculated 
with reference to the motion of toothed gearing, varies with the 
material of which the teeth are constructed. 

From Tredgold's experiments with well-constructed cast-iron 
wheels, this coefficient has been calculated to be 25 for that 
metal ; and adopting it, the preceding formula will then become 

V x h = 2b x f x w; - 
whence, 

_ 25 x f w 
P ~ h ' 
a lormula in which three dimensions are variable. 

The following ratios usually exist between these quantities :— 

w varies between 3 i! and 8 t. 

h = 1-2 I to 1-5 t. 

Let, then, w = 5 t, and h = 1-2 I, so that, substituting these values 

in the equation, it becomes — 



whence, 



_, 25 x 5 x I xf 



f = — and t = -098 ^AjT 
10-1 



If the above ratio between tho thicknoss, t, and width, w, be 
adopted for all proportions ; for low pressures or small loads, we 
shall have teeth much too thin and small ; and for high pres- 
sures, on the other hand, the defects of too groat thickness and 



pitch. To retain, then, the thicknesses within convenient limits, it 
is well to vary the ratio of t to w, according to the pressures ; and 
in order that the pitch may not be too great, the width of the teeth 
is determined at the outset, according to the pressure or load 
which they have to sustain, in the following manner : — 



I. 


For 


100 to 


200 lb., 


make w = 3t; 


when 


! = -126VF 


n. 


c; 


200 


300 


u 


w = 3-5 1 


u 


' = -117Vp 


in. 


(1 


300 


400 


it 


w= At 


u 


!= -HOVp 


IV. 


u 


400 


500 


u 


w = 4-5 1 


" j 


= -104Vp 


v. 


« 


500 


1,000 


<t 


w= bt 


" 1 


= -098 vy 


VI. 


it 


1,000 


1,500 


a 


w = 5-5 t 


u 


' = -093Vp 


VII. 


it 


1,500 


2,000 


u 


w= 61 


(C 


[=•089^? 


vm. 


EC 


2,000 


3,000 


a 


w = 6-5t 


u 


'=-084^P 


IX. 


U 


3,000 


5,000 


it 


w = It 


(C 


' = -082^P 


X. 


It 


5,000 and upwards 


a 


w= 8t 


u , 


= -077 f P 



The height, or projection, h, should be comprised between 12 t 
and 1-5 t, the latter applicable to low powers or loads, and the 
former to high ones. 

For teeth of wood, which are ordinarily made of beech or elm, 
the coefficient should be augmented by a third in each of the last 
given formulae, which become — 

I. t = -168 VW making w = 3-0 t. 



H. t = -156 VW 

. m. t = -uiVy 

IV. t = -\39VF 

V. t = -131 Vv 

VI. i = -124 W 

vn. t = -\\$VY>~ 

vm. t = -w2,VT 

ix. t—-\o$VT 

x. t = -io3VF 



to = 3-5 t. 
w = 4-0 t. 
w = 4-5 1. 
w = 5-0 1. 
w = 5'5 1. 
w — 6-0 t. 
w = 6-5 t. 
w = 7-0 t. 
w = 8-0 t. 



All these formulae are constructed on the supposition that, 
although there are generally several teeth in contact at the same 
time, yet each should be capable of sustaining the whole strain as if 
there were only one in contact, and they should bo strong enough 
to compensate for wear, and sustain shocks and irregularities in the 
strain for a considerable length of time. 

Tho pressure, P, on the teeth may bo determined according to 
the amount of power transmitted by the wheels per second at the 
pitch circumference. 

This pressure is obtained by dividing the strain to be transmitted, 
expressed in kilogrammetre, by the velocity per second of the pitch 
circumference. A kilogrammetre is a term corresponding to the 
English expression, " one pound raised one foot high per minute." 
A kilogrammetre is equal to ono kilogramme raised one metre 
high per second : it is written shortly thus — k. in. 

First Example. — A spur-wheel is intended to transmit a force 
equal to a power acting at tho pitch oiroumferenoe of 600 kilo- 
grammetres, at the rate of 2'09 m. por second, what pressure have 
the teeth to sustain? 



76 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Here, 



500 k. m. 



2-09 



= 239 kilog., 



the strain that each tooth must be capable of resisting without 
risk of breakage, even after considerable use and wear. 

Second Example. — A spur-wheel, 2 metres in diameter, transmits 
a force equal to 20 horses power, and makes 25 revolutions per 
minute, what is the pressure on the teeth ? 

We have, in the first place, 

20 h.p. = 75 X 20 = 1500 kilogrammetres, 
and 



V = 



3-14 x 2 x 25 



60 



= 2-62 m. per second; 



573 kilog., 



whence, 

1500 
2-62 : 
the pressure on the tooth. 

When the power that a wheel has to sustain at its circumference 
is known, the thickness proper for the tooth may be calculated by 
one of the preceding formulae, according to the material of which 
it is constructed. 

Thus, in the former of the last two examples, in which P = 239 
kilog., the thickness of the tooth, if of cast-iron, should be making 
w= 35 Z: 

t — -117 V239 =1-8 cent. = 18 millimetres. 
And. in the second example, where P == 573 kil., the thickness 
will be, supposing the teeth to be of beech, and w = 5t, 

t = -131 VbTS = 3-23 c > or 32 ' 3 millimetres, 
w = 5 x 32-3 = 161-5 millimetres. 
Third Example. — A water-wheel of 4-2 metres diameter makes 
4^ revolutions per minute, and transmits a force equal to 25 horses 
power by means of a spur-wheel, the radius of which is 1-65 m., 
it is required to determine — first, the pressure on the teeth of this 
spur-wheel ; and, secondly, the thickness of their teeth. 
In the first place, 

25 x 75 = 1875 kilogrammetres, 



ana 



V = 



1-65 x 2 x 314 x 4-5 



60 



•777 m. ; 



whence, 

P — -^=== = 2413 kilogrammetres ; 

consequently, making w = 6-5 1, the thickness of the tooth will be 

t = -084 V2413 = 3-7 c = 37 millim., 
and 

w = 37 x 6-5 = 240-5 millim. 

Fourth Example. — The cast-iron pinion of a powerful machine 

is 1-06 m. in diameter, it is fixed on a shaft which should transmit 

an effective force of 200 horses power, at the rate of 45 revolutions 

per minute, what is the pressure on the teeth and their dimensions ? 

The power transmitted is 

200 x 75 = 15,000 kilogrammetres, 



and 



V = 



1-06 x 3-14 x 45 
60 



■ = 2-37 metres per second. 



The pressure on the teeth is — 
„ 1500 



= 6333k.m.; 



2-37 

consequently, making w = 8 1 ; we have, for the thickness of the 
teeth, in cast-iron, 

t = -077 ^6333 = 61-2 "/„. 
and w = 8 x 61-2 = 489-6 m / m . 

For a pinion of the above proportions, actually constructed, the 
tliickness was made 75 millim., and the width 525 millim. 

PITCH OF THE TEETH. 

222. It will be recollected (203) that the pitch of cast-iron 
spur-wheel teeth, measured on the pitch circumference, comprises 
the thickness, t, of the tooth, and the width of the interval, which 
last is, in ordinary cases, made equal to t, augmented by one-tenth ; 
this gives, p = 2-1 1. 

Thus, with the data of the preceding examples — 

In the 1st, 2> = 2-1 x 18 = 27-8 B /„. 

3d, p = 2-1 x 37 = 77-7 "/„. 

4th p= 2rl x 61-2 == 128-5 °7 m . 

When the spur-wheel is intended to carry wooden teeth, as in 
the second of the preceding examples, it will generally be coupled 
with a pinion, having cast-iron teeth, which should be of about 
three-fourths the thickness of the wooden ones ; in this case the 
pitch will be equal to 

t + -75 I + -1 1 = 1 + -85 t = 1-85 t. 
Thus, in this example, we should have — 

^=32-3 x 1-85 = 59-8 m / m . 
After this is done, that is, when the pitch is ascertained, which, 
as has already been observed, should be precisely the same on the 
pitch circles of any two wheels working together, the number of 
•teeth of on« of the wheels may be obtained by the following 
formula — 

P 
where N signifies the number of teeth of the spur-wheel ; R, the 
radius of the pitch circle ; and p, the pitch, measured on this circle. 
First Example. — Wiat is the number of teeth on a spur-wheel 
of two metres diameter, and the pitch of which is -0278 metres ? 
Here — 

- + 2 x 3-14 x 1 a _ „ 
N= — 0278— =225teetL 

It will be easily understood, that the fraction arising from the 
operation must be neglected, since we cannot have a part of a 
tooth. In cases, therefore, where there is a fraction, the pitch 
must be slightly increased. Thus, in the example under consi- 
deration, the pitch becomes — 

2rt R 6-28 

P = -tT == ^5 = , ° 279m -' 

instead of 0-278 m. 

Second Example. — It is required to determine the number of 
wooden teeth to be carried by a spur-wheel of two metres diameter, 
the pitch being -0598 m. 
Here, 

„ 3-14 x 2 

N = ^0598- = 105 - 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



77 



When a spur-wheel is to have wooden teeth, it is necessary 
that the number of these be some multiple of the number of arms 
of the wheel, in order that they may be conveniently attached to 
the web ; thus, in the present example, if the wheel is to have 
6 arms, the number of teeth must be 102 or 108, to be divisible 
by that number; and if the former be adopted instead of 105, the 
pitch will be slightly augmented in consequence. 

To obviate the necessity of making long and tedious calcula- 
tions, a table is subjoined, showing the thickness and pitch of 
teeth of spur-wheels, in which is adopted the coefficient -105 of 
M. Morin, which makes the formula, 

for cast-iron teeth, and 

t = -U5V~P 
for wooden teeth : the width being constantly equal to nearly 4 - 5 
the thickness. 

Table of the Pitch and Thickness of Spur Teeth for different 
Pressures. 





Of Cast-iron. 


Of Wood. 


Pressure in 










Kilogrammes. 


Thickness of 

Teeth in 
Millimetres. 


Pitch in 
Millimetres. 


Thickness of 

Teeth in 
Millimetres. 


Pitch in 

M illimetres. 


5 


23 


4-9 


3-2 


5-9 


10 


3-3 


6-9 


4-7 


8-7 


15 


4-0 


8-5 


5-6 


10-4 


20 


4-6 


9-7 


6-4 


11-8 


30 


6-7 


12-0 


7-9 


14-4 


40 


6-6 


189 


9-1 


16-9 


50 


7-4 


15-6 


10-2 


18-9 


60 


8-1 


17-0 


11-2 


20-8 


70 


8-7 


18-4 


12-1 


22'4 


80 


9-4 


19-7 


12-9 


23-9 


90 


9-9 


20-8 


13-7 


253 


100 


10-5 


22-0 


14-5 


26-8 


125 


11-6 


24-4 


16-1 


29-8 


150 


12-8 


26-9 


17-7 


32-7 


175 


13-8 


29-1 


191 


34'8 


200 


14-8 


31-1 


20-2 


37-4 


225 


15-7 


33-0 


21-7 


40-1 


250 


16-6 


34-8 


22-9 


42-4 


275 


17-3 


36-3 


23-9 


44-2 


300 


18-2 


381 


25-1 


46-4 


350 


196 


41-2 


■ 27-1 


50-1 


400 


21-0 


43-2 


29-0 


53-6 


500 


23-4 


491 


32-4 


59-9 


600 


25-7 


54-0 


35-5 


65-7 


700 


27-7 


58-2 


37-2 • 


69-1 


800 


29-7 


62-4 


41-0 


75-8 


900 


31-5 


66-1 


43-8 


83-0 


1000 


33-2 


69-6 


45-8 


84-7 



With the assistance of this table, and the preceding rules, we 
can always determine, not only the thickness and pitch of the teeth, 
but also then- height and width, since these aro in proportion to 
their thickness. 

DIMENSIONS OF THE WEB. 

223. The width of the web is ordinarily equal to that of the teeth 
when the whole is of cast-iron. Nevertheless, in some cases — such 
as, for example, whoro very great irregularities in the pressure and 
Bpood, and reiterated shocks have to be borno in the heavy ma- 
chinery in engine shops — tho wob is made wider than tho teeth, 



projecting also on either side of the teeth, so that these are wholly 
or partially imbedded, which increases their power of resistance 
very considerably. These lateral webs are generally each made 
of about half the thickness of the tooth. 

The thickness of the web, or crown, is never made less than 
three-fourths that of the tooth, and very frequently it is further 
strengthened by an internal feather, as already mentioned. 

213. When the teeth are of wood, the web is much thicker, to 
give sufficient hold to the tenons of the teeth ; it is generally 
made about T5 to 2- times the thickness of the tooth. 

NUMBER AND DIMENSIONS OF THE ARMS. 

224. The number of arms, or spokes, which a spur-wheel ought 
to have, has not, up to the present time, been precisely and 
scientifically determined. According to general experience, up to 
a diameter of 1 metre, or about 3 feet, four arms are sufficient ; 
from 1 metre to 2 metres, or 3 feet to 6 or 7 feet, six are 
necessary and sufficient ; beyond 2 - 5 m., or 8 feet, eight arms aro 
used: and for 5 m., or 16 feet, ten are given; it is seldom this 
last number is exceeded, except for wheels of extraordinary di- 
mensions. 

The section of the arms of the wheel is always in the form of 
a cross, the stronger portion of which lies in the plane of the cir- 
cumferential strain, whether these arms are cast in one piece with 
the boss and the crown, as is the case with wheels of small 
diameter — that is, of such as have not a greater radius than 2 m. or 
6£ feet ; or whether they are cast in separate pieces, and after- 
wards fitted together. The thicker part, then, of the arm must be 
strong enough to bear the circumferential strain. Experience 
has shown, that when a spur-wheel is in motion, and acted upon 
by a considerable force, this strain has a tendency to make the 
arms assume a twisted shape, and produce on them a lateral 
inflexion. It is to obviate and prevent this, that the arms are 
strengthened by feathers. 

The power acts with greatest effect near the boss of tho wheel, 
so that it is necessary to make them wider at this part than near 
the crown, so as to approximate to the form which presents an 
equal resistance throughout. This will be observed in the 
figures in Plate XX. The boss must have such a thickness as 
will allow of the wheels being solidly fixed on the shaft. A 
thickness of 5 inches may be considered a maximum for the bosses 
of moderately-sized wheels. The dimensions of the arms should 
be in proportion to tho width of the web or crown, (heir thickness. 
being ordinarily about 1 that of the crown. This proportion is a 
good one for wheels under 6£ feet in diameter. For larger sizes, 
£ the width of the web is considered sufficient. 

The lateral feathers should have, at (he very most, only the 
thickness of tho arm. Generally, the width of the arm near tho 
web is mado about § of its width near the boss. The following 
table, calculated from Tredgold's experiments, shows the propor- 
tions to bo given to the arms or spokes of spur-wheels, according 
to tho strain acting at their circumferences; supposing the dia- 
meter of tho wheels to be 1 m., and the number Of arms (i, their 

thickness being taken equal to J the width of the crown. Tho 
dimensions given are the averages, or those to ho applied to tho 
arm, half-way between the boss and the crown. 



7S 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Table of the Dimensions of Spur-wheel Arms. 



Tangential Strain on the 


Width of the Arm in 


Width over all, of the 


Wheel in kilog. 


centimetres. 


Feathers in centimetres. 


10 


4-20 


1-21 


40 


6-00 


2-00 


80 


8-00 


3-00 


*58 


8-50 


3-90 


244 


9-70 


4-85 


836 


1067 


6-30 


430 


11-64 


6-80 


680 


1212 


8-25 


•730 


13-10 


8-73 


870 


13-80 


9-70 


1100 


14-50 


10-67 


1210 


15-50 


11-64 


1500 


16-00 


12-60 


1750 


16-50 


13-68 


2200 


17-00 


14-06 


2300 


17-50 


16-50 


2660 


1800 


17-00 


2840 


18-50 


17-95 


3220 


19-00 


19-50 


3500 


19-50 


1940 



To apply the numbers in this table to wheels of other diameters, 
they must be multiplied by V^R, R being the radius of the wheel 
for which the dimensions are to be calculated. 



WOODEN PATTERN'S. 

225. When a casting has not to be turned, oi otherwise re- 
duced, about 1 per cent, must be allowed in the dimensions of the 
pattern, and if the piece has to be turned, a little more than this. 
It is, however, impossible to give any rule in this last case, as the 
allowance to be made depends entirely upon the nature and desti- 
nation of the piece. The larger the piece, the greater should be 
the per centage given. 

No piece can be cast with mathematical precision — whether it 
is, that, on the one hand, the pattern loses its true shape, and 
lines, which have been made perfectly straight or circular, become 
twisted, notwithstanding that every precaution has been taken in 
perfecting it ; or, on the other hand, that, in lifting it from the 
loam, the moulder is forced to move it laterally, to some slight 
extent, so that the casting becomes larger at one part, or twisted 
at another ; or, again, that the metal does not shrink equally at all 
parts. With regard to the last-mentioned source of error, it has 
often been found that the diameter of a wheel, measured through 
the line of the arms, is sensibly less than as measured across the 
centres of the spaces between the arms. This difference is indeed 
so great, that in wheels of 10 to 15 feet diameter, it reaches an 
eighth or a sixth of an inch. 

It is manifest, that all these considerations must be borne in 
mind when constructing wooden patterns for castings ; otherwise, 
errors of considerable magnitude will arise. 



CHAPTER VI. 



CONTINUATION OF THE STUDY OF TOOTHED GEAR. 



CONICAL OE BEVTL GEAEOG. 



226. Cylindrical or spur-wheels are only capable of transmitting 
motion between shafts which are parallel to each other ; and when 
the shafts are inclined, or form any angle with each other, the 
wheels require to be made conical, and are then called bevil- 
wheels. 

In order that this description of gear may be capable of working 
well and regularly, and of transmitting considerable power when 
needed, as with spur gear, it is essential that the shafts or axes of 
any pair working together be situated in the same plane; in this 
case, the axes will meet in a point which is the apex common to 
the two wheels. 

Formerly, when it was required to transmit power through 
shafts intersecting each other at right angles, a species of lantern- 
wheel was employed for one of the wheels, consisting of a couple 
of discs with cylindrical bars for teeth, passing from one to the other 
parallel to the axis ; and the wheel to gear with this one was formed 
with similar teeth, also parallel with the axis, but projecting up 
from a single disc or ring. This form of gearing is still to be found 
in old mills ; but it is very defective, and very inconvenient when 
any speed is required. 

Sometimes, as for some descriptions of spinning machinery — the 
cotton-spinner's fly or roving-frame, for example — bevil-wheels are 



used, in which the axes are not situate in the same plane ; these are 
termed " skew bevils," from the teeth having a hyperboloidal twist 
in order that they may act properly on each other. This kind of 
wheel does not work well, and is seldom employed, except where 
the size is very small, or where a small power only has to be trans- 
mitted; the peculiar form of then teeth also renders them very 
difficult to construct. Their use is so limited, that further details 
respecting them are uncalled for. Indeed, they ought rather to be 
avoided, since there are very few cases in which common bevil- 
wheels cannot be substituted for them with advantage. 

The teeth of bevil-wheels are made of wood or metal, similarly 
to spur-wheel teeth, and their geometrical forms are determined on 
the same principles. 

DESIGN FOE A PATE OF BEVIL-WHEELS IN GEAR. 
PLATE XXII. 

227. We propose, in the present example, to give the larger 
wheel wooden teeth, and the smaller ones cast-iron ones, as was 
done with the pah- of spur-wheels last described. 

Let a e and a c, figs. 1 and 2, be the axes of the two wheels 
assumed here to be at right angles to each other; though we 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



79 



must observe, that what follows will apply equally well to the 
construction of a couple of wheels, the axes of which make any 
angle with each other, acute or obtuse. 

Let bd = -220 m., and ef= -440 m., the radii of the pitch 
circles of the two wheels. It is, in the first place, necessary to 
determine the position these circles should occupy on their respec- 
tive axes. With this view, on any point, b, taken on the axis, a b, 
erect a perpendicular, b d, and make it equal to the radius of the 
smaller wheel, and through the extremity, d, draw a line, d l, 
parallel to this axis ; in the same way, at any point, e, taken on 
the axis, a c, erect the perpendicular, e f, equal to the radius of 
the larger wheel, and through the extremity, f, draw f h parallel 
to a c. The point of intersection, g, of these two lines, f h and 
r> l, is the point of contact of the two pitch circles, the radii of 
which are g i and g k. Make I H and k l, respectively, equal to 
the radii, and join the points, h g l, to the common apex, a, thereby 
determining what are termed the " pitch " cones, a h g and a g l, 
of the two wheels, the straight line or generatrix, a g, being the 
line of contact of the two cones. These pitch cones possess the 
same properties as the pitch circles, or, more correctly, pitch 
cylinders, of spur-wheels ; that is to say, their rotative velocity is 
in the inverse ratio of their diameters, and their diameters are pro- 
portional to the respective numbers of their teeth. 

The proportions of the pitch cones being thus obtained, with the 
centres, o and o', figs. 2 and 3, taken on the prolongation of the 
given axes, describe the pitch circles, a h' i' and g' k' l'. Divide 
these circles into as many equal parts as there should be teeth ; 
that is to say, in the present case, 24 and 48, respectively, which 
operation will give the pitch ; each part is then bisected to obtain 
the centres of the teeth and of the intervals, and on each side of 
the centre lines are set off the demi- widths, of the teeth, regard 
being had to the difference to be made between the wooden and 
cast-iron teeth, as already explained (213). 

The external contours of the teeth will be situated in cones, the 
generatrices of which are perpendicular to those of the pitch cones ; 
they are obtained by drawing through the point of contact, g, on 
the line, a g, a perpendicular, b c, meeting the axis of the smaller 
wheel in b, and that of the larger one in c ; the points, b and c, are 
the apices of the two cones, b h g and cgi, 

If these last-mentioned cones be developed upon a plane, it will 
be easy to draw upon it the exact forms of the teeth. Now, we 
have seen (170) that the development of a cone on a piano surface 
takes the form of a sector of a circle, which has for radius tho 
generatrix of tho cone, and for arc the development of the base of 
the cone. As it is unnecessary to develop the entire cone in the 
present case, it is sufficient to describe with any point, b', fig. 4, 
with a radius equal to B G, an arc, a e b, on which, starting from 
the point, c, are divided off distances — one, c d, equal to tho thick- 
ness of the tooth of tho smaller wheel, fig. 3, and tho other, c e, to 
that of the tooth of tho larger wheel, fig. 2. Tho samo operation 
is performed for the larger wheel ; that is, with tho point, c', 
situated on the prolongation of b' c, and with a radius equal to c g, 
describe the nvc,fcg, on which aro measured tho distances, 
respectively, equal to tho former ones, e d and c e. 

This done, the outlines of tho teeth aro obtained by moans of 
precisely the same operations as those explained in reference to 



the spur-wheels. Thus, on the radius, b' c, considered as a 
diameter, describe a circle, i cj, which, in rolling round the circle, 
fcg, considered as the pitch circle of the larger wheel, determines 
the epicycloid, e h, which gives the curvature of the teeth of the 
larger wheel ; in the same manner, the circle, k el, described on 
the radius, e c', as a diameter, and rolling round the circle, a c b, 
gives the epicycloid, c m, which is taken for the curve of the teeth 
of the smaller wheel. After having repeated these curves sym- 
metrically on each side of the teeth, these are limited by drawing 
chords in the generating circles from the point, e, each equal to 
the pitch of the teeth, as c n, c k, and then with c' and b' as centres, 
describe circles passing, one just outside the point, n, and the other 
just outside the point, k ; and to indicate the line of the web, describe 
a second couple of circles, nearly tangents to the preceding. Then 
project the points, o and p, which indicate the depth and extre- 
mities of the teeth, over to the line, b c, in o' and p' ; through these 
last draw straight lines to the apex, a, which will represent tho 
extreme generatrices of the teeth, as in vertical section. 

As all the teeth converge in one point, it is obvicus that the 
contour of the inner ends of the teeth cannot be the same as that 
of the outer ends ; the difference is the greater, according as the 
width, g r, on the generatrix line of contact is itself greater, in 
proportion to the entire cone, and to the greater or less angle 
formed by the extreme generatrices. 

In other respects, this contour is determined in the same manner 
as the first. Thus, through the point, r, is drawn the straight 
line, s i, perpendicular to a g, which cuts the two axes, and gives 
the proportions of the two cones, on the surface of which lie the 
contours of the inner ends of the teeth. Continuing the opera- 
tion as above, portions of the cones are developed, arcs being 
described with the points, s' and l', as centres, and radii equal to 
r s and r t The diagram, fig. 5, which is analogous to fig. 4, fully 
explains what further is to be done. 

What has been said so far, has referred only to one tooth of 
each wheel. In proceeding with the execution of the design, after 
cutting out templates to the form of the teeth as obtained by 
means of them, the outline is repeated, as often as is necessary, on 
the external cones, the generatrices of which are B G and g c, for 
the outer ends of the teeth, and on the internal cones, the genera- 
trices of which are r s and rt, for the outlines of the inner ends of 
the teeth. At the same time, and in order thajj tho operation 
may be performed with regularity, a series of lines should' be 
drawn through the points, o, p, of the two wheels, lying on the 
surface of tho external cones, a h g, a g l, and uniting at the 
apex, A, by means of a "false square," of a form analogous to that 
represented at x, in fig. 3, Plate XXIII., for the smaller wheel, 
and liko that represented at t, fig. 4, of the same Plate, lor the 
larger wheel. 

Tho forms of the teeth being thus obtained, the partial Bection, 
fig. 1, of the two wheels is drawn, the radii oi' the shafts being 
given, as well as the thickness of the bosses and webs, the propor 
tiona employed in the present example being indicated on the 
drawings, It will be observed that those teeth which are of wood 

are adjusted in the web of the larger wheel, in the same manner 

as in the spur or cylindrical wheels, the forms of the tenons being 

modified, so that their sides all Incline to the common apt 



80 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



The sections, together with the developments, figs. 4 and 5, are 
sufficient for the purposes of construction, as all the required mea- 
surements can he obtained from them ; but when it is desired to 
produce a complete external elevation of the two wheels, it will be 
necessary to find the projections of the teeth and other parts. 
With this view, the teeth are first actually drawn upon the planes 
of projection parallel to the bases of the wheels, as shown in figs. 
2 and 3. It will be recollected, that divisions have already been 
made on the pitch circles, a h' i', and l' k' g', indicating the centre 
lines, as well of the teeth as of the intervals, and marking the 
positions of the flanks ; and, consequently, all that remains is to 
draw the external outlines and the curved portions. For the 
smaller wheel, the operation consists in projecting to p', in fig. 3, 
the point, p, fig. 1, which limits the lower and outer edge of the 
tooth, and in describing with the centre, o, and radius, o p', a circle 
limiting the whole of the teeth externally, and corresponding to the 
section of the cone in which the points, p p', fig. 1, lie. In tills 
circle, also, terminate the curves of the outer portions of the teeth, 
and their exact points of intersection are obtained by measuring on 
each side of the centre lines, v o, distances, v u, v p, equal to the 
corresponding distances, v' u', v' p', in fig. 4. Then, through the 
points, u, p, draw a series of lines, converging to the centre, o ; and 
through the points, e, e, found in a similar manner, draw similarly 
converging lines, indicating the inner angles of the intervals. 
Further, find the circular arc to represent the epicycloidal curve, 
passing through the points, w, p. and tangential at the same time 
to the lines, o e, at the points, e, e. 

The method of doing this is shown in fig. 3 : it consists in draw- 
ing through the point, e, a line, e z, at right angles to the radius, 
o e, and in bisecting the chord, e w, by a perpendicular cutting, 
e z in z, which will be the centre of the required arc. Arcs of the 
same radius, e z, are employed for the curves of all the teeth on the 
smaller wheel, and the outline of these is completed by determin- 
ing, in a similar manner, the arcs for the corresponding curved 
portions of the inner ends of the teeth, after having projected and 
drawn circles through the points corresponding to r and p a , of fig. 
1. Finally, the lines of the web between the teeth — that is, the 
bottom lines of the intervals — are drawn, the projections of the 
points, y and y'. being found, and circles described with the centre, 
o, passing through them. It will be observed that, on a portion 
of fig. 3, is represented a view of a quarter of the lower and inner 
side of the wheel, whilst the other portion of the figure is an 
external view, showing the teeth as in plan ; in the former case, the 
outline resembles that of a spur-wheel, for, as it is the larger ends 
of the teeth and web on which we are looking, the narrower and 
inclined portions are hid behind. 

The lateral projection of the teeth of the small wheel, fig. 1, is 
obtained, first, by successively projecting or squaring over, from 
the plan, fig. 3, the points, e, e, to the pitch line, g h; and 
secondly, by similarly squaring over the points, p p, to the 
external line, p p 1 . Through the points, e, e, draw a series of lines 
converging at the apex, b, and representing the flanks of the teeth, 
and liinited by the line, y y ; then draw curves tangential to these 
flanks at the points, w, p, making them pass through the extreme 
points, e, e. Where the scale of the drawing is very large, and it 
is wished to be particularly precise in delineating these curves, 



points intermediate between w, p, and e, e, may be obtained by 
describing intermediate circles in fig. 3, representing sections of 
the cone, projected in straight lines in fig. 1, over to which are 
projected the points of intersection of the curves, with the circles 
in fig. 3. Through the points, u p, draw straight lines, converg- 
ing in the apex, a, and find the lateral projection of the inner ends 
of the teeth, supposing planes to pass through the points, r, y> 
and p 3 ; these points in the circular projection of the planes, fig. 3, 
being squared over to the corresponding rectilinear projections 
in fig. 1. The inner ends of the teeth are then completed by 
drawing the flanks, e', y', all converging in the apex, s, and joined 
by arcs passing through the points, ef, p 1 . 

The upper left-hand quadrant, m, of fig. 2, is a face view of the 
teeth of the larger bevil-wheel, with wooden teeth, the whole 
being drawn in the same manner as in fig. 3. The method of find- 
ing the centre, z, of the arc, which is substituted for the curved 
portion of each tooth, is shown in fig. 2 s . From this view (fig. 2) 
are obtained the various points required to produce the lateral 
projection of the teeth in fig. 1. The operations are precisely the 
same as those just described in reference to fig. 3, and the smaller 
wheel ; the same distinguishing letters are also used to point out 
the s imil arity. 

The same figure (2) also comprehends at n a second quadrant 
of the wheel, drawn as seen from the under side, so as to show a 
face view of the tenons of the wooden teeth, the sides of which all 
converge in the point, o'. A third quadrant, p, gives a view of 
the outer side of the web or crown, the teeth being supposed to be 
removed, so that the mortises are seen. The last quadrant, r, 
gives a back view of the web, also without the teeth. 

Fig. 6 is a section of one of the arms of the larger bevil-wheel, 
made through the line, 1 — 2, in fig. 2. Fig. 7 is a section of the 
web made through the line, 3 — 4, fig. 2, passing through the 
centre of the mortise ; and fig. 8 comprehends a lateral projection 
and two end views of one of the wooden teeth. 

Bevil, as well as spur-wheels, are fixed on their shafts by means 
of keys, and pressure screws, v, are often added to insure their 
perfect adjustment centrally. 

The measurements given in the diagrams will enable the student 
to form an accurate idea of the actual proportions of the various 
parts. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN PATTERNS FOR A FAIR. 
OF BEVTL-WHEELS. 

Plate XXTTI. 

228. The observations we have already made with reference to 
the patterns of spur-wheels, are evidently equally applicable to the 
construction of patterns for bevil-wheels ; still, at the same time, 
the difference in the form of the latter calls for further details, 
more especially appertaining to them. 

PATTERN OF THE SMALLER BEVIL-WHEEL. 

229. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the two projections of the pattern 
of the smaller of the two wheels in the preceding Plate. Fig. 3 
is a vertical section through the line, 1 — 2, of fig. 2, showing on 
one side the layers of wood put roughly together, and intended to 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



81 



form the crown ; and on the other, a view of the same as finished, 
with the arm and its feathers. 

It will be seen from these figures that the crown is built up in 
the same manner as that of the pinion in Plate XXI. ; the layers 
of wood are, however, in steps, increasing in diameter downwards, 
so as to give the required conical form when turned. When these 
pieces are glued together, the whole is turned externally and 
internally in such a manner as to conform exactly to the full-sized 
drawing, previously made on a board planed smooth for the pur- 
pose. " Squares," also, should be made from the drawings, to 
serve as guides in producing the correct conical inclination. 

After turning the top face, b' b', perpendicular to the axis of the 
cone, the pattern-maker proceeds to turn the external conical 
surface, a' V, of the web or crown. As a guide in doing this, he 
takes a " false square," t, fig. 4, of which one side, b b, corresponds 
to the plane face, V b', and the other, a b, to the inclination 
of the conical generatrix, a' b' : it is very easy with tins to take 
off just as much of the wood as is necessary, without the liability 
of going too far. It is also necessary to determine the inclination 
of the generatrix, b a', of the outer cone, perpendicular, it will be 
recollected, to the contact generatrix, g r, by means of the square, 
x, fig. 3, the side, a b, of which is applied exactly to the conical 
surface, a' b', and the side, a c, then gives the inclination of the 
conical surface, a' c' ; and the same square being turned round will 
give the inclination of the internal conical surface, b' d', the gene- 
ratrix of this, the smaller cone, being s r, parallel to b g, that of 
the larger one. 

Finally, the thickness at a' c' and b' d', is measured on the 
wooden web, so as to obtain the proportions of the internal conical 
surface, c d', to be turned out in a similar manner. 

Mortises have now to be cut in the crown to receive the ends of 
the arms, c, and their feathers, e. As the wheel under considera- 
tion is of very small diameter, the number of arms is limited to 
four; these arms are so placed inside the crown that the feathers 
are all on one side, and towards the wider end of the cone. Their 
attachment to the web is by means of a circular groove or mortise, 
seen at e'/', fig. 2, and at g' d', fig. 3, and they are united at the 
centre to each other and to the boss, in the same manner as the 
arms of the pinion, described in reference to Plate XXI. The 
arms are not placed in the middle of the boss, as in the spur-wheel 
and pinion, but are simply applied to the base of the boss, which 
may, consequently, be of a single piece ; and the feathers are let 
into a groove extending their whole length, and are fixed into the 
boss and crown at either extremity. The boss is slightly coned, 
so as to give the " draw " necessary in the construction of the 
mould. Its outer edges are indicated by the lines, m n, m n, whilst 
the other lines, o p, which are, on the contrary, parallel to the axis, 
show the depth of the grooves cut to receive the feathers of the 
arm. These last, as shown in the section, fig. 10, are thicker near 
the arms. 

The core pieces, e, are added on either end of the boss, and the 
whole is held firmly together by menus of a central bolt. 

The pattern being so far advanced, tho external conical surface 
is divided into as many equal parts as there are to he teeth aud 
intervals, and, with the assistance of tho "false square," T, lines 
which represent generatrices of tho cone, are drawn through tho 



points of division, to indicate the positions of the teeth or of the 
grooves to receive them. 

Each tooth is cut out separately according to the full-size draw- 
ing made, as already mentioned, which, besides containing the ver- 
tical section, fig. 3, should also show the exact form of each end of 
the tooth, b', and of the dovetail joint attaching them to the web. 
Fig. 5 shows a portion of this drawing for the larger ends of the 
teeth. 

PATTERN OF THE LARGER BEVIL WHEEL. 

230. Figs. 6 and 7 represent the elevation and plan of the 
pattern of the larger bevil wheel, with wooden teeth, represented 
in Plate XXII. Fig. 8 is a vertical section through the axis of the 
wheel, showing on one side the arrangement of the pieces of wood 
built up upon one another, and forming the crown, a, and on the 
other side, the same piece, turned and finished, attached by the 
arm, c, to the boss, d. 

Fig. 9 represents the false square, t, employed as a guide for 
giving the proper inclination to the external conical surface, a' b', 
of the crown. 

Fig. 11 is a transverse section of one of the arms, or spokes, 
taken through the line 7 — 8 in fig. 7. 

Whatever explanations are called for regarding the construction 
of the crown, a, the arms, c, and the boss, d, as well as the uniting 
of these parts with each other, have already been given in reference 
to preceding examples. We have distinguished all corresponding 
parts and working lines by the same letters. 

The only difference between this last and the preceding example 
consists in the disposition of the tooth pieces, b', placed on the out- 
side of the crown, to form the sockets in the mould for receiving 
the core pieces for the mortises, into which the wooden teeth are 
to be fixed after the piece is cast. 

It must be observed, in the first place, that these projections 
must be shaped so that the end, k I, is inclined to the surface, b' a', 
instead of being perpendicular to it. This inclination must be 
sufficient to allow of the easy disengagement of the piece from 
the mould. This disposition is necessary, because the lower 
half of the mould takes the impression of the outside of the crown, 
with the tooth pieces and the upper portions of the arms, whilst 
the top part of the mould takes the inside of the crown, the 
feathers of the arms, and the boss, the position of the whole being 
the reverse of that in which they are represented in the drawing. 

The core pieces for the teeth are formed by the moulder in core 
boxes, similar to those described in reference to figs. 10 and 11, 
Plate XXL, which we have reproduced in Plate XX11I., ligs. 13, 
13, and 14, as modified to suit the different form of tooth. Fig. 
12 is a face view, and figs. 13 and 14 are sections made through 
the linos 9—10 and 11—12 of fig. 12. It will be observed that, 
at the larger end of the tooth, the part to project is formed with 
an inclination corresponding to ft /, in fig. 7, already referred to as 
required in this ease. 

The operations called for in delineating these patterns are all 

fully indicated, ami are analogous to those in the preceding plates. 
The observations, also (' 19 and 21 1), already made, with reference 
to calculating the allowance t<> he made for shrinking, and tor the 
turning and finishing processes, are equally applicable to the ease 
before us. 



82 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



INVOLUTE AND HELICAL TEETH. 
PLATE XXIV. 

DELINEATION OF A COUPLE OF SPUR-WHEELS WITH INVOLUTE 
TEETH. 

Figures 1 axd 2. 

231. In the various systems of gearing just discussed, wherein 
epicycloidal teeth have been employed, it will have been observed — 

1st. That the outline of the teeth of one wheel depends on the 
diameter of the other wheel with which it is in gear. 

2d. That the distance between the centres of any couple of 
wheels cannot be altered in the slightest degree without deteriorate 
ing the movement. 

3d. That the distance from the respective centres of the point 
of contact varies throughout the duration of the contact; from 
which must obviously result irregularity in the action and inequality 
in the amount of friction. 

The practical defects arising from these causes have induced a 
search after other forms, and amongst these a modification of the 
involute has been tried. The form in question possesses the fol- 
lowing advantages : — 

1st. The form of the teeth of such a wheel is quite independent 
of the diameter of the wheel with which it is to gear. . * 

2d. The distance between the centres of the wheels may be 
varied without disadvantage. 

Some authors also attribute to this form the property of trans- 
mitting the pressure uniformly throughout the duration of the con- 
tact. This, however, cannot be the case altogether, for the distance 
of the point of contact from the centres of the wheels is constantly 
varying — the variation not being accurately proportional in the two 
wheels. This system of gearing is constructed on the following 
principles : — 

Let the centres, o and o', fig. 1, of the two wheels be given, 
and the radii, o a and a o', of the respective pitch circles ; also, 
let o b be the radius of any circle described with the centre, o ; to 
the circumference of this last draw a tangent, a b, passing through 
the point, a, and prolong it indefinitely in either direction. From 
the centre, o', let fall on this line a perpendicular, o' c, on which 
Will accordingly be the radius of a second circle tangent to the 
same line. These circles of the radii, o B and o' c, are those from 
which are derived the involute curves, a b and c d, forming the 
outline of the teeth. For the rest, the wheels are drawn just as 
in Plate XVIII. (197.) 

It must be observed that the curve, a b, which is the involute 
of the circle of the radius, o b, is that for the tooth of the spur- 
wheel, the centre of which is the same, and the radius, o A ; and, in 
like manner, the curve, c d, the involute of the smaller circle, is 
that for the teeth of the pinion of the radius, o' a. It thus follows 
that the form of the teeth of the spur-wheel is quite independent 
of the diameter of the pinion, whilst that of the pinion teeth is 
independent of the diameter of the spur-wheel. From which it 
follows, that wheels constructed in this manner may be set to gear 
with any wheels whose teeth are formed on the same principle, 
and whose pitch is the same, whatever may be their respective 
diameters. The epicycloidal system does not admit of this, 



although, when the wheels are large, and there is not much dif- 
ference between their 4iameters, a slight deviation from strict 
mathematical proportions is not found practically inconvenient. 

The involute curves, a b and c d, are repeated symmetrically 
on either side of the division lines representing the centre lines of 
the teeth. If we now suppose the two involutes, a V and a c', to 
be in contact at the point, a, on the line of centres, o o', and we 
measure off on the common tangent, a b, a distance, a e, equal to 
the pitch, fg, as measured at the pitch circle, and then, with the 
centre, o', describe a circle passing through the point, e, this circle 
will be the external limit of the pinion teeth. 

In like manner, if, on the other portion, a c, of the tangent, we 
measure a distance, a e', also equal to the pitch, fg, and with the 
centre, o, describe a circle passing through the point, e', it will 
be the limit of the spur-wheel teeth. It is further obvious, that 
circles passing a little within the point, e', on the one hand, and e, 
on the other, will determine the depth of the intervals, or the line 
of the web of the pinion and spur-wheel respectively. 

Fig. 3 is a diagram to show — first, how that the point of con- 
tact of the two involute curves is always in the line of the common 
tangent, b c. Thus, referring again to fig. 1, and supposing the 
pinion to turn in the direction of the arrows, the point of contact-, 
as a of the involute, a b, is gradually removed away from the 
centre, o', of the pinion, whilst it approaches nearer and nearer to 
the centre, o, of the spur-wheel. Returning to fig. 3, it is shown, 
in the second place, that the distance between the two centres, 
o, o', may be varied without its being necessary to alter the curves ; 
but, in such case, the inclination of the tangent will be different, 
becoming, for example, as b c', when the two centres are brought 
nearer together. 

In practice, instead of determining the radius, o b, arbitrarily, 
and then deriving the other radius, o c, from it, or vice versa, the 
circles which serve for generating the involutes may be found, as 
well as the inclination of the tangent, by the following method : — 
On one of the pitch circles, that of the pinion, for example, take 
an arc, a i, equal to the pitch of the teeth ; draw the radius, o' i, 
and on it let fall a perpendicular, a m, from the point, a ; o m will 
then be the radius of the generating circle for the involute curve 
of the teeth of the pinion, and by prolonging m a to n, which is, in 
fact, the common tangent, and drawing the radius, o n, perpendi- 
cular to it, or, what is the same thing, parallel to o' m, o n will be 
the radius of the generating circle for the involute of the teeth of 
the spur-wheel. 

If this rule is applied to wheels of large diameters, it will give 
curves differing very slightly from epicycloids. 

By taking for the generating circles, as in the first case, radii, 
o b and o' c, sensibly less than the radii of the pitch circles, the 
inclination of the common tangent to the line joining the centres is 
greater, and the resulting form of tooth possesses greater propoi- 
tionate width and strength at the roots, which is desirable for 
gearing intended to transmit great or irregular strains. 

It will be observed further, that, according to this system, the 
rectilinear portion of the flank of the tooth is almost reduced to 
nothing, indeed the curve may be continued down to the line of the 
web with advantage, as the tooth will, in consequence, be much 
stronger near the web, which is not the case with the epicycloidal 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



83 



teeth, for in these the flanks all converge towards the centre of the 
wheel, and the tooth is, in consequence, narrower at the neck, close 
to the web, than at the pitch circle. 

Fig. 2 is a fully shaded elevation, or vertical projection of the 
spur-wheel separated from the pinion. The portions of these 
wheels not particularly referred to, are constructed on the same 
general principles as those previously discussed. 

helical gearing. 

Figures 4 and 5. 

232. If to a worm-wheel we apply, instead of a worm, a pinion 
with teeth helically inclined to correspond to the similarly inclined 
teeth of the worm-wheel, we shall have a spur-wheel and pinion 
constructed on the helical principle. 

This system, invented in the seventeenth century by Hooke, 
but reproduced since by White and others, claims to possess two 
properties which have been often thought to be Incompatible with 
each other — namely, uniformity of angular velocity, and freedom 
from other than rolling friction between the teeth. In other words, 
the arcs described by driver and follower will be equal in equal 
times, and the contact between the teeth will resemble that of 
circles rolling on planes. 

Added to these properties, and consequent to them, are the 
advantages of a constant contact, and of an insusceptibility to the 
play between the teeth, which invariably exists more or less 
palpably in gearing constructed according to the systems before 
described. 

The form of the helical teeth, as taken in a sectional plane at 
right angles to the axis of the wheel, may be derived either from a 
couple of epicycloids, or a couple of involutes ; it is only the sides 
which, in common spur-gearing, are parallel to the axis that here 
follow the inclination of a succession of helices coming in contact 
one after the other. The arrangement is such that the contact of 
each tooth commences at one side of the wheel and crosses over 
to the other, and does not cease until the following tooth shall 
have commenced a fresh contact. 

The helicoidal system may be applied either to wheels having 
their axes parallel, as spur-wheels, or intersecting, as bevil-wheels, 
or again inclined, but not intersecting, as skew bevils. 

In figs. 4 and 5 are represented, in face and frlgo view, a spur- 
wheel and pinion, constructed according to this system of Hooke's, 
this being its simplest and most common application : — Let A o and 
a' o be the radii of the respective pitch circles of tho two wheels, 
these radii being, of course, in tho same ratio as the numbers of 
the teeth, as in common gearing. The radii are supposed to lio 
in a vertical plane, b' c', and it is on this plane, as turned at right 
angles, that the operations represented in fig. 4 arc supposed to be 
performed. 

These operations have for their object tho obtainment of tho 
outline of the teeth, and are precisely the same as for any other 
epicycloidal system of gearing. Thus, tho curves, a b and a c, 
are derived from the generating circles, o d a and a d' 0', as also 
tho Hanks, a </ and a e; but it is unnecessary to repeat a detailed 
explanation of the proceeding. 

Supposing, then, the outline of the teeth to be drawn as on the 



plane, b' c', representing say the anterior face or base of the wheels, 
next draw the line, e f, (fig. 5,) representing the opposite face, and 
parallel to the first, limiting also the breadth of the wheels. 

To proceed methodically, the teeth should also be drawn as seen 
on this plane, e f being behind the outlines of the anterior ends of 
the teeth, a distance equal to a a', or rather more than the pitch. 
These last outlines need only be represented in faint dotted or 
pencil lines in fig. 4, as the parts they represent are not actually 
seen in that view when complete. Thus, starting from the point, 
a', on the pitch circle of the spur-wheel, and from the point, g', 
on the pitch circle of the pinion, we repeat the contours of the 
teeth, as obtained at e a i and d An, respectively. 

As the result of this disposition, it will be observed, that if the 
curve, a ?', of the tooth, a, of the spur-wheel is in contact, at the 
pitch_ circle, with the flank, g d, of the tooth, g, of the pinion at 
the anterior face, b' c', and if the wheels be made to turn to a cer- 
tain extent in the direction of the arrows, the curve, a' i', on the 
opposite face, e f, will in time be found to be in contact with the 
corresponding flank, g' d', of the pinion. In other words, if the 
space between the curves, a i and a' i', be filled up by a helicoidal 
surface, as also the space between the flanks, g d and g' d', all the 
points of one such surface will be in contact successively with the 
corresponding points on the other ; so that when, for example, the 
curve a V, shall have reached the position, a 2 i"; that is, when it 
shall have passed through a distance equal to a a', the posterior 
curve, a' i, will have assumed the position held originally by a i; 
or rather, a position directly behind this in tho plane passing 
through the axis, and the point of contact between a' i' and g' d' 
will then obviously be in the line of centres, o o'. It thus follows, 
that any two teeth which act on each other will be constantly in 
contact on the line of centres throughout a space equal to a a'. 
This space, a a', is, as before stated, somewhat greater than the 
pitch of the teeth, so as to allow a following couple of teeth to act 
on each other, and be in contact on the line of centres before the 
couple in advance shall be quite free, and thus a constant contact 
on tho lino of centres is preserved tliroughout the entire revolu- 
tion. 

In order to delineate the lateral projection, fig. 5, it will be 
necessary to find the curves which form the outline of the helicoidal 
surfaces of the teeth. The principle, according to which this is 
to be done, is precisely what has already been explained (208). In 
the present case, however, as we have but fragments of helices to 
draw, in place of finding the pitch of the helix, and then dividing 
it and tho circumforenco proportionately, it will be sufficient to 
divide tho width, b' e, of the wheels, into a certain number of 
equal parts ; and through the points of division, to draw lines 
parallel to b' c'. Further, tho arcs, a a', e e', i »', must be divided 
into a like number of equal parts. 

To render tho diagram clearer, these divisions are transferred 
to 1,2, 3, 4, &c.,andl', 2', 3',.t',cvc. (fig. 4.) Each point. 1,2,8, I. 
being squared over, in succession, to the corresponding lines in 
fig. 5 — namely, the lines of division first obtained, and I 
parallel to the faces of the wheels, the operation will give the 
curve, 1, 3, 5, 6, (fig. 5,) corresponding to the outline o\' the exter- 
nal edge, extending from / to /'. Tin- curve, 1'. :'.'. :< . 0'. similarly 

gives tho other edge. It is also obvious that the line of junction 



84 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



of the tooth with the web will be represented by the helical curve, 
a a', (fig. 5), having the same pitch as the last, but lying on a cylin- 
der of a somewhat smaller diameter. 

The lateral projections of all the teeth are determined in the 
same manner, but they will, of course, assume various aspects, 
from the different positions in which they lie with respect to the 
vertical plane. 

233. In construction, in order to determine the exact inclination 
of the teeth, the following proportional formula is employed. The 
four terms of the formula being, the radius of the wheel, its width, 
the given circumferential distance, corresponding to a a', and the 
pitch of the helix ; that is, a a' : a o : : b' e : x, x being the heli- 
cal pitch for the spur-wheel, or the quantity sought. It may be 
obtained geometrically, simply thus: — Make the straight line, M n, 
(fig. 6,) equal to the arc, a a', as developed ; at the extremity, n, of 
this line, erect a perpendicular, n l, equal to the width, b' e, of 
the wheels ; join l m, which will give the mean inclination of the 
tooth, corresponding to the pitch circle. Then make n i equal 
to the arc i i', rectified, and n j equal to the arc, e e', rectified, 
which will give the inclinations, l i and l j, of the helices, passing 
through the extremity, i, of the tooth, and the line, e, of junction 
of the tooth to the web. 

It will be understood that the helices of the pinion-teeth will 
have the same inclination as those of the spur-wheel teeth, with 
which it is in gear, and the helical pitch is, in consequence, differ- 
ent; for, the radius is smaller, and tho corresponding proportional 
formula becomes a a' or a g' : a o' : : b' e : x. 

The motion of wheel-work, constructed according to the helical 
system, is remarkably smooth, and free from vibratory action, 
but it has the defect of producing a longitudinal pressure upon the 
axes, from the obliquity of the surfaces of contact to the plane of 
rotation. This, however, may be obviated, and the longitudinal 
action balanced, by making the wheels duplex ; that is, as if two 
wheels, on each axis, were joined together — the inclination of the 
helices being in contrary directions, or right and left handed. 
Such wheels, though duplex, need not be wider or thicker, in 
proportion, than simple ones ; for the arrangement would permit 
of a much greater obliquity of the teeth, the only limit, indeed, to 
the degree being the tendency to jam, which would arise were the 
inclination very great. 

When the wheels are placed on axes which are inclined to each 
other, as in common bevil-wheels, the helices become such as are 
described upon conical surfaces, and require to be drawn in the 
manner already shown (174), the form of the tooth being previously 
determined, for each end, by means of the developed planes of the 
opposite faces of the wheels. 

Besides the epicycloid and involute and their various combina- 
tions, other and more complex curves have at different times been 
proposed for the forms of wheel teeth. The most worthy of 
notice amongst these is that derived from the "hour-glass " curve, 
the properties of which have lately been investigated in a very 
scientific manner by Professor Sang of the Imperial School at 
Coustantinople. 

If a couple of discs, with their pitch circles touching, be made 
to revolve at a rate proportionate to the required number of teeth 
in each, a point may be imagined as travelling along a curve, 



returning upon itself in such a manner that it will describe the 
forms of the respective teeth on each disc. In the system of 
teeth alluded to, this point is made to travel along the "hour- 
glass " curve, a curve similar to that described by the piston-rod 
attachment in Watt's parallel motion, and also exhibited by the 
vibration of a straight wire, whose breadth is double its thickness. 
The form of tooth obtained in this manner is demonstrated by its 
inventor to be theoretically superior to all others yet known. The 
chief advantage appears to be, that whilst according to tho epicy- 
cloidal and involute systems, the form of the entire tooth is made 
up of two curves of different natures, whose junction cannot, in 
consequence, be perfectly smooth or fluent, the point of inflexion 
or passage from one curve to the other, occurring, moreover, 
precisely where the best action w T ould otherwise be. The "hour- 
glass " curve produces one continuous analytic curve for the entire 
outline of the wheel, thereby avoiding all sudden transitions, such 
outline, at the same time, allowing of the interchange, in any way, 
of wheels of the same pitch. 

The great exactness and nicety obtainable by and called for in 
the construction of teeth on this system, is, however, far beyond 
the requirements of ordinary machinery. Indeed the practical 
engineer and machinist will not be at the trouble of employing 
even epicycloidal or involute curves, but contents himself with arcs 
of circles approximating pretty nearly to these curves. The 
method generally pursued in determining the best proportions for 
the radii of these substitutive arcs is as follows : A pair of templets 
or thin boards are cut to the curvature of the pitch circle and 
generating circle, respectively, of the wheel, the shape of whose 
teeth is sought. The generating templet carries a point which is 
made to describe the outline of the tooth on an additional board, 
by rolling its edge on that of the pitch templet. The operator then 
finds by trial with a pair of compasses, a centre and radius which 
will give an arc agreeing as nearly as possible with the curve 
traced by the templet. Through the centre thus found he describes 
a circle concentric with the pitch circle, and in which the centres 
for the arcs of all the teeth will obviously lie, and retaining the 
radius, he steps from tooth to tooth in both directions, until all the 
teeth are marked out. 

A very ingenious and useful scale was invented some years ago 
by Professor Willis, which renders unnecessary this preliminary 
operation for obtaining the radii and centres. This scale, termed 
the " Odontograph," is now largely employed, and is found to give 
very excellent forms of teeth. Its application is very convenient. 
A graduated side of the instrument has a certain inclination to 
another, which is first made to coincide with a radius of the 
wheel, whilst its point of intersection with the first is placed in the 
pitch circle. The graduated side gives the direction in which the 
centres lie, whilst the lengths of the radii are obtained from tables 
calculated for the purpose, indicating the respective distances on 
the graduated scale, and corresponding to the given pitch and 
number of teeth. 

Wheels with teeth formed according to this scale are capable 
of being interchanged, which is not the case with those in which 
the arcs are determined according to other rules. 

After going through the explanations given, and rules laid down 
in the last few sections, the student should be quite competent 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



85 



to design practical arrangements and combinations of toothed gear 
according to whichever of the systems may be preferred. 



CONTRIVANCES FOR OBTAINING DIFFERENTIAL 

MOVEMENTS. 

THE DELINEATION OF ECCENTRICS AND CAMS. 
PLATE XXV. 

234. Eccentrics and cams are employed to convert motion, 
whilst toothed-wheel work is for the simple transmission of it. 

Endued themselves with a continuous circular movement, they 
are so constructed as to give to what they act upon, an alternate 
rectilinear movement, or an alternate circular movement, as the 
case may be, the motion so produced being obtainable in any 
desired direction. 

CIRCULAR ECCENTRIC. 

235. There are several descriptions of eccentrics. The simplest 
and most generally employed, consists of a circular disc, completely 
filled up, or open and with arms, according to its size, and made to 
turn in a uniform manner, being fixed on a shaft which does not 
pass through its centre. Such eccentrics are represented in 
Plate XXXIX. 

The stroke of such a piece of mechanism is always equal to 
twice the distance of its centre from that of the shaft on which it 
turns ; that is to say, to the diameter of the circle described by its 
centre during a revolution of the shaft. The motion of the piece 
acted upon is uninterrupted during either back or forward stroke, 
but it is not uniform throughout the stroke, although that of the 
actuating shaft is so ; the velocity, in fact, increasing during the 
first half of the stroke, and decreasing during the second half. 

heart-shaped cam. 
Figure 1. 

236. When it is required to produce an alternate rectilinear 
motion which shall be uniform throughout the stroke, the shape of 
the eccentric or cam is no longer circular; it is differentially 
curved, and its outline may always be determined geometrically 
when the length of the stroke is known, together with the radius 
of the cam, or the distance of its centre from the nearest point of 
contact 

An example of this form of cam is represented in the figure. 

Let a a' be the rectilinear distance to be traversed, and o, the 
centre of the shaft on which the cam is fixed, it "is required to 
make the point, a, advance to the point, a', in a uniform manner 
during a semi-revolution of the shaft, and to return it to its original 
position in the same manner during a second semi-revolution. 

With the centre, o, and radii, o a, and o n\ describe a couple of 
circles, and divide them into a certain number of equal parts by 
radii passing through the points, 1, 2, 3, 1, &C. Also divide the 
length, a a', into half as many equal parts as (lie circles, as in the 
points, 1', 2', 3', &.c. Describe circles passing through these 
points, and concentric with the first. These circles will succes- 
sively intersect the radii, o 1, 2, o 3, &c, in the points, />, C, </, e, 
&<:., and the continuous curve passing through these points will 



be the theoretical outline of the cam, which wDl cause the point, 
a, to traverse to a', in a uniform manner, for the equal distances, 
a' 1', 1' 2', 2' 3', &c, passed through by the point, a, correspond 
in succession to the equal angular spaces, a' 1, 1 — 2, 2 — 3, &c, 
passed through by the cam during its rotation. 

As it is not possible to employ a mathematical point in prac- 
tice, it is usually replaced by a friction roller of the radius, a i, 
which has its centre constantly where the point should be ; and it 
will be seen, that in order that this centre may be made to travel 
along the path already determined, it will be necessary to modify 
the cam, and this is done in the following manner : — With each of 
the points, b, c, d, &c, on the primitive curve as a centre, describe 
a series of arcs of the radius, a i, of the roller, and draw a curve 
tangent to these, and such curve will be the actual outline to be 
given to the cam, b. 

It will be seen from the drawing, that the curve is symmetrical, 
with reference to the line, a e, which passes through its centre ; 
in other words, the first, half which pushes the roller, and conse- 
quently the rod, a, to the end of which the roller is fitted, from 
a to a', is precisely the same as the second half, with which the 
roller keeps in contact during the descent of the rod from a' to' a. 
Thus the regular and continuous rotation of the cam, b, produces 
a uniform alternate movement of the roller, and its rod, a, which 
is maintained in a vertical position by suitable guides. 

In actual construction, such a cam is made open, and with one 
or more arms, like a common wheel, or filled up, and consisting of 
a simple disc, according to its dimensions ; and it has a boss, by 
means of which it is fixed on the shaft. When it is made open, 
it is cast with a crown, of equal thickness all round, and strength- 
ened by an internal feather, curved into the boss at one side, and 
into the arm or arms at the other. 

Examples of the heart-shaped cam are found in an endless 
variety of machines, and particularly in spiuning machinery. 

cam for producing a uniform and intermittent movement. 
Figures 2 and 3. 
In certain machines, as, for example, in looms for the " picking 
motion," cases occur where it is necessary to produce a uniform 
rectilinear and alternate motion, but with a pause at each extremity 
of the stroke. The duration of the pause may be equal to, or 
greater, or less, than that of the action. Fig. 2 represents tho 
plan of a cam designed to produce a movement of this description : 
and in this case the angular space passed through by the cam, in 
making the point, a, traverse to the position, a', is supposed to be 
equal to half the angular space described by it, whilst the point, </, 
is stationary, whether in its position nearest to the centre, or 
its furthest, it', from it. For this reason, the circles of the 
radii, o a, and o o' are each divided into six equal parts in (ho 
points, a', 1, /, g, ft, and j. Of these portions, the two opposite, 

] /' and j ft, correspond to the eccentric curves, bf and./ ft, which 

produce (he movement, whilst the other portions correspond to tho 
pauses. 

After having drawn the diatnelers, 1 ft, and /'_/, the eccentric 

curves, /' /', and I //, are determined in precisely the same manner 

as the continuous i'ut^^ already discussed, and represented in fig, 
1. That is to say, the ares 1 /'. and j ft, arc to bo divided into a 



80 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



certain Dumber of equal parts by radial Hues; and the Hue, a a', 
being divided into a like number of equal parts in the points, 2', 
3', 4', &c., concentric circles are to be drawn through these points, 
which will be intersected in the points, c, d, e, by the radial division 
lines. Lines passing through these points of intersection will be 
the curves sought, bf, and I h. 

The arcs, b a I, and f g h, winch unite the extremities of the 
curves, are concentric with tlio shaft, and consequently, as long as 
the point remains in contact with these arcs, it will continue with- 
out motion, although the cam itself continue its rotation. 

The observation made with reference to the preceding example 
of a cam, applies equally to the one, c, under consideration — that 
is, with regard to the actual shape to be given to it, which is derived 
from the substitution of a friction roller of the radius, a i, for the 
mathematical point, a. The operation is fully indicated on the 
diagram. 

This eccentric not being intended to overcome any great resist- 
ance, is made very light, a considerable portion of the metal being 
cut away, and merely, a couple of arms left for stiffness. The 
crown, arms, and a great part of the boss, are, in fact, all of a 
thickness, as will be more plainly seen in fig. 3, which is simply 
a section made through the line, 1 — 2, in fig. 2. Fig. 3 also shows 
the proportions of the roller, and ijs spindle. 

When the moving point, or the roller, is constrained to move 
through an arc, instead of a straight line, being, for example, at 
tlie end of a vibratory lever, the curves of the cam are no longer 
symmetrical, but the operations by which they are determined are 
still the same, the difference arising from the divisions of the arc, 
which takes the place of the straight line, a a'. 

triangular cam. 
Figures 4 and 5. 

238. A species of cam, in the form of a curvilinear equilateral 
triangle, is sometimes employed in the steam-engine, to give mo- 
tion to the slide valve. This valve is generally of cast-iron, of a 
rectangular form, as at t, figs. A and S3. It is hollowed out in 
its inner side, to form a passage, and it applies itself, with its inner 
planed edges, to a surface, a b, on the cylinder, d, also planed 
true, and called the valve face. Its function is to allow the steam 
to pass alternately to the upper part of the cylinder, by the port, 
c, or to the lower part, by the port, d, whilst the hollow part of 
the valve forms a communication alternately between either of 
these ports, c, d, with the escape pipe, e. To obtain the desired 
effect, it is necessary that the slide valve be actuated with an alter- 
nate rectilinear reciprocatory movement; for this purpose it is 
attached to a vertical rod, I, passing through a stuffing-box in 
the valve casing, and connected to the rod, u, represented in fig. 
<g, and forming one piece, with the rectangular frame, f, inside, 
which works the triangular cam, g. 

It is the last piece which has to effect the raising and lowering 
of the valve a certain distance and intermittently, in such a man- 
ner that the port, c, for example, may be open to the entering 
steam for a certain time, whilst the other, d, is in communication 
with the escape pipe, and reciprocally. 

Let o e, fig. 4, be the whole stroke of the valve, or the distance 
through which it traverses; with the centre, o, and with this 



distance, o e, for a radius, describe a circle, and divide it into six 
equal parts, in the points e, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. With any two adja- 
cent points, as 1 and 2, and with the same radius, o e, describe two 
arcs, o 2, and o 1, so as to form the curvilinear triangle, o — 1 — 2, 
which is exactly, the outline of the eccentric, g, each side of which 
is equal to a sixth of the circumference. 

Draw the parallels, 5 — 1 and 4 — 2, tangential to the two sides 
of the triangle, g, and we shall thus obtain the upper and lower 
internal surface of the frame, f. 

The cam is made of steel, as well as the two sides of the frame, 
f. which bear upon it. It is adjusted and secured by the screw- 
bolt, h, to the disc, h, keyed on the shaft, J, as shown in the hori- 
zontal section, fig. 5, taken through the line, 3 — 4, in fig. 4. 

It will be easily conceived, that if the shaft turns in the direc- 
tion of the arrow, the curved side, o 1, of the cam, acting against 
the upper side of the frame, will cause it to rise, carrying with it 
the rod, u, in such a manner, that when the point, 1, shall have 
reached the position, e ; that is, when the cam shall have made a 
sixth of a revolution, this side of the frame will occupy the posi- 
tion, m n, thereby indicating that the slide-valve has been elevated 
to a distance equal to half o e, and that, in consequence, the port, 

d, is uncovered, so as to allow the steam to enter the lower part 
of the cylinder (fig. S3) ; whilst, on the other hand, a communica- 
tion is established between the upper port, c, and the escape orifice, 

e, so that the steam can pass out from the upper end of the cylin- 
der. If the movement of the cam be continued during a second 
sixth of a revolution, the slide-valve will remain in the same posi- 
tion, because the arc, 1 — 2, which is concentric with the axis, does 
not change the position of the frame, as long as it is in contact 
with its side, m n. As soon, however, as the point, 2, of the cam 
reaches the position, e, the side, o 1, will be in the position, o 5, 
and it will, in consequence, be in contact with the lower side of 
the frame, which is in the position of the horizontal centre-line, 
3 — 4. The further revolution of the cam, therefore, makes the 
frame descend from its pressure on the lower side, until the side, 
o 1, of the cam, occupies the position, o 3, when the lower side of 
the frame will occupy the position, m' n', corresponding to the 
position of the valve, represented in fig. S3. 

It follows from this arrangement, that the valve will remain 
stationary when it arrives at each extremity of its stroke, and the 
pause each time will be of a duration corresponding to one-sixth 
of a revolution of the cam shaft. The upward and downward 
movements each take place during a third of a revolution, and the 
velocity of the valve will not be uniform, although the rotation of 
the cam-shaft is so. In actual construction, the angles of the 
cam are slightly rounded off, to avoid a too sudden change of 
motion, and to prevent the too rapid wear of the sides of the frame. 

involute cam. 
Figures 6 axd 7. 

239. In certain industrial arts, an instrument is employed for 
pounding, crushing, and reducing substances, such as plaster or 
tanbark, for example, in which the direct-acting force is the weight 
of the instrument itself brought into play by its descent through 
a determined height. The mechanical forge-hammer is a well 
known working application of this expedient 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



87 



In these eases, the stamp, or hammer, has to be raised or tilted 
tip preparatory to each succeeding stroke, and it is obvious that 
this may be most economically done in a gradual manner. It is 
generally effected by a cam, the outline of which is the involute 
curve already described ; this form beiug preferable on account of 
the uniformity of its action. 

The office, then, which the cam under consideration has to 
fulfil, is the raising of the stamp, or load,, to a certain height, and 
then the letting it fall, without impediment, upon the object sub- 
mitted to its action. 

The diameter of the cam-shaft being predetermined, as well as 
that of the generating circle, which last is usually the same as that 
of the boss of the cam, the design is proceeded with as follows : — 
Letting a be the cam-shaft, and taking a o as the radius of the 
generating circle, whilst a a' is the height to which the projection, 
b, fig. E), formed on the stamp, c, is to be raised, develop the 
circumference (197) of the circle of the radius, a o, by means 
of a series of tangents which give the points, c, d, e, &c, the curve 
passing through which forms the involute, bfi. The inner por- 
tion, b o, is not a continuation of the involute, but simply joins the 
boss with a circular turn, because the stamp projection, b, does 
not approach the cam-shaft, a, nearer than the point, a, to which 
b corresponds. Through the point, a, draw the vertical, a a', and 
make it equal to the height to which the stamp has to be raised ; 
then with the centre, a, and a radius equal to a a', describe the 
arc, a' m i, which will cut the involute in the point, i, and this 
point is consequently the outer limit of the cam. A little con- 
sideration will show that if the cam-shaft, a, be turned in the 
direction of the arrow, supposing that it is originally placed, so 
that the point b, coincides with a, it must necessarily raise the 
lifting-piece, b, the lower side of which is indicated by the line, 
m a, and will carry it by equal increments up to the position, m' a'. 
The point, i', will then have attained the position, a', and the rota- 
tion continuing, the next moment it will pass it, when the earn will 
be entirely clear of the lifting-piece, b, and this last being unsup- 
ported, must fall by its own weight. 

The involute might have been derived from a generating circle 
of the radius, a a, and had this radius been adopted, the resulting 
curve would have been shorter, notwithstanding that it would give 
the same extent of lift. The angular space passed over would 
also be less, and this would admit of a higher velocity of the cam- 
shaft, and the strokes might be given in more rapid succession, 
whilst on the other hand, a greater power would be required to 
raise the same weight. 

The cam we have represented in fig. E), is such as is employed 
to actuate the chopping stamp of mills for reducing oak, or other 
bark, for the preparation of tan. The bark is placed in a kind of 
wooden trough, e, solidly fixed into tho floor. The stamps are 
armed with a series of cutters, n, in the form of crosses. The .side 
of the trough next to the stamp is vertical, whilst tho opposite side 
is elliptical in shape, and tho matter under operation has, con- 
sequently, always a tendency to fall under tho stamp. The stamps 
aro kept vertical bv slides in which they work. They are generally 
from 450 to 700 pounds weight, and fall through a height of from 
16 to 20 inches. 
Fig 7 is a plan of the cam as seen from below, and fully 



indicates the width of the rim, and of the boss, and the thickness 
of the feather or disc uniting the two. 

A series of such cams are frequently employed in different 
planes on the same shaft, actuating a corresponding series of 
stamps, and in such case they are arranged in steps so as to come 
into action one after the other. Two or more are also sometimes 
employed in the same plane, and working a single stamp. In this 
latter case, the generating circle requires to be of much larger 
diameter in proportion, but the principle of construction is how- 
ever the same. 

cam to produce intermittent and dissimilar movements. 
Figures 8 and 9. 

240. In certain examples of steam engines, the valve movement 
is obtained from a species of duplex cam, which being formed of 
two distinct thicknesses, affords a means of adjustment whereby 
the valve may be made to move intermittently and at different 
rates, the proportions of which are variable at pleasure. The 
object of this is to form and shut off the communication between 
the cylinder with the steam-pipe, at any required point of the 
stroke. In other words, the arrangement permits of the working 
of the machine on the expansive principle, and of varying the 
" cut-off " point at pleasure within certain limits. We shall see, 
at a more advanced period, what is to be understood by the fore- 
going expressions. In designing cams of this class, we primarily 
determine the radius o a, of the cam boss, and the entire length, 
b c, of the stroke to be given to the valve-rod. This distance, 
which in the present instance we shall take as equal to three times 
the height of the port, must not be traversed at one movement. 
On the contrary, a third only of this is at first passed through, 
with some rapidity, and the remaining two-thirds are traversed at 
a later period, in a continuous manner : in other words, after a 
third of the stroke has been traversed, a slight pause takes place 
before the remainder is traversed, and a second pause also occurs 
before the commencement of the return stroke. 

After describing a couple of concentric circles with the respec- 
tive radii, o a, and o c, and having determined the angular spaces, 
a d, and fg, corresponding to the times during which the valve is 
to remain stationary, and the spaces, g h, and cf, corresponding to 
the duration of the movements ; divide the whole stroke, b c, into 
thrco equal parts in tho points, i,j, through which describe circles 
concentric with the preceding. Through tho points,/, »■, h, draw- 
radii, and produce them tof, g', and h'. 

As the cam will act on two friction rollers, g, diametrically 
opposite to each other, their radius is determined, as a 8 ; one ia 
drawn with its centre, e, on the radius, o a produced, and tangen- 
tial to tho circle described with that radius; the other, with its 
centre, c , on the radius, o c produced, is, in like manner, tangential 
to tho circle described with this radius. 

Between the two points, </ and A, and comprised within the 
given angle, g h. a curve, k I </. 13 draw n and united by tangential 
arcs at either extremity with the circles ^>\' the radii, a and o i, 
respectively, in such a manner as to avoid any sudden change of 
direction. Next divide the arc, g //.into a certain number of equal 
parts in the points, 1, 2, fltO., and cany the radii across to I', 9 , 

&c, ; tii«n, on each of these radii, as a centre line, describe an in 



88 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



corresponding to the radius of the roller, g, and tangential to the 
curve, k I d. By this means will be obtained the points, r s I, 
indicating the successive positions of the centre of the roller on 
the line, e e', when impelled by the curve, kid. If, then, starting 
from these several points, we measure on the corresponding cross 
'ines, 1 — 1', 2 — 2', &c, distances equal to e e', which is obviously 
constant, we shall obtain the positions, /, s', t', of the centre of the 
opposite roller, g', corresponding to those of the first. Then, with 
these points, r, s, t, as centres, describe arcs of the radius of the 
roller, and draw the curve, d' I' f, tangential to them, and unite 
them to the circles of the radii, c o axidj o, in a similar manner to 
the opposite curve. The curve, d' I'f, will obviously, from its 
construction, be in contact with the roller, g', whilst the first, dlk, 
is in contact with the other roller, G. 

In order that the rollers, g, g', may maintain their relative 
position, and move in the same rectilinear direction, they are carried 
in bearings, h, forming, with four tierods, i, a frame which em- 
braces the cam and cam shaft, the middle of the rods being planed 
to rest and slide upon the latter. 

To one end of the frame is bolted the cast-iron connecting rod, 
J, fig. ®, jointed to the bell-crank lever, k. This last vibrates 
on the centre, u, and by its second arm actuates the link, v, con- 
nected to the rod, x, of the valve T, fig. H, above. In the position 
given to the cam and roller frame, in fig. 8, the valve is not cover- 
ing the upper part, c', and this remains open whilst the cam 
rotates through the angle, a o d, because the arc, a d, and its oppo- 
site, c d, are both concentric with the axis of the cam shaft, o. 

When, however, the point, d, shall have arrived at the position, 
a, supposing the cam shaft to continue to turn in the direction of 
the arrow, the cam will shortly pass through the angle, dog, and 
the projecting curve, d I k, will push the roller, g, to the right, and 
the opposite roller, g', being drawn in the same direction, will roll 
along the corresponding curve, d' I' g'. This movement will cause 
the valve to be raised to the extent of a third of its stroke, cor- 
responding exactly to the width of the port, c'. This port will, in 
fact, be completely closed when the radius, o k, of the cam shall 
have reached the position, o e. At this point, the valve is required 
to remain stationary for a short time, during which the cam, in 
continuing to revolve, describes the angle, g of. As soon, how- 
ever, as the radius, of, reaches the position, o e, the valve, and its 
actuating gear, will again move, and continue to do so, until the 
lower port, c a , be completely open. This movement will take place 
whilst the cam describes the angle, foe, and is caused by the 
curve, a' b' c', which pushes the roller, g, and the frame still further 
to the right. The curve, a' b' c', is united by a gradual turn to the 
circles of the radii, o k and o c, in the same manner as the curves 
previously drawn. The opposite and corresponding curve, amn, 
is obtained in the same manner as d' V g', opposite to, and derived 
from, the first curve, dlk. The operations in both cases are fully 
indicated on the diagram, and it has merely to be borne in mind 
that the object is to keep the two rollers, g and g', in contact with 
the cam in every position of the latter. 

After the cam has passed through the angle, foe, the valve, 
with its gear, remains stationary during another interval, in which 
the angle, c o d", is traversed, and then the first curve will com- 
.mence to act upon the roller, g', and cause it, with the frame, to 



return from right to left, and the movements and intervals will take 
place in the same order as to time as in the up stroke of the valve 
already described in detail ; but the direction will be reversed — 
that is, the valve will perform its return stroke — until it reaches 
its original position, as represented in fig. H. 

To proceed : it is easy to conceive the cam, as constructed in 
two pieces, precisely alike in all respects, and laid upon one another, 
as M and m', fig. 9, one M being fast to the shaft, whilst the other, 
m', is capable of being adjusted to the first in any relative position. 
Since the rollers, g, g', are long enough to be in contaet with both, 
it will follow" they will, in any given position, be acted upon by 
that half of the cam which projects most at that particular point ; 
so that, if the curved portion, d I k, of one is turned slightly in 
advance, it will come into action sooner, and, by consequence, will 
cause the valve to shut off the communication between the steam 
pipe and the cylinder at an earlier period of the stroke. In this 
manner is obtained a means of varying the rate of expansion at 
which the engine is w 7 orked. 

Fig. 9 is a horizontal section, showing the two halves, m m*, of 
the eccentric, and the arrangement of the details of the friction 
rollers, g g', and frame, h l 

Fig. [F is a front view of the valve face of a steam-engine cylin- 
der, showing the disposition of the ports. 

An innumerable variety of movements may be produced by the 
agency of cams ; but the principles of then- construction are mostly 
the same as those just discussed, and the examples given will be 
a sufficient tmide in designing others. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

MECHAXICAL "WORK, OR EFFECT. 

241. To work, considered in the abstract, is to overcome, during 
any certain period of time, a continuously replaced resistance, or 
series of resistances. Thus, to file, to saw T , to plane, to draw 
burdens, is to work, or produce mechanical effect. 

Mechanical work is the effect of the simple action of a force 
upon a resistance which is directly opposed to it, and which it 
continuously destroys, giving motion in that direction to the point 
of application of the resistance. It follows from this definition, 
that the mechanical work or effect of any motor is the product of 
two indispensable quantities, or terms : — 

First, The effort, or pressure exerted. 

Second, The space passed through in a given time, or the 
velocity. 

The amount of mechanical work increases directly as the increase 
of either of these terms, and in the proportion compounded of the 
two when both increase. If, for example, the pressure exerted be 
equal to 4 lbs., and the velocity 1 foot per second, the amount of 
work will be expressed by 4 x 1=4. If the velocity be double, 
the work becomes 4x2 = 8, or double also ; and if, with the 
velocity double, or 2 feet per second, the pressure be doubled as 
well — that is, raised to 8 lbs. — the work will be, 8 x 2 = 1 6, or 
the quadruplicate of its original amount. 

In the term " velocity," " time " is understood ; so that, in fact, 
just as space or solidity is represented in terms of three dimensions, 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



89 



length, breadth, and depth, so also is mechanical effect defined by 
the three terms representing pressure, distance, and time. This 
analogy gives rise to the possibility of treating many questions 
and problems, relating to mechanical effects, by means of geometri- 
cal diagrams and theorems. 

The unit of mechanical effect (corresponding to the geometrical 
cubical unit) adopted in England, is the horse power, which is 
equal to 33,000 lbs. weight, or pressure, raised or moved through 
a space of 1 foot in a minute of time. The corresponding unit 
employed in France is the kilogrammetre, which is equal to a 
kilogramme, raised one metre high In a second. Thus, supposing 
the pressure exerted be 20 Mlog., and the distance traversed by 
the point of application be 2 metres in a second, the mechanical 
effect is represented by 40 k. m. ; that is, 40 kilog., raised 1 metre 
high. This unit is much more convenient than the English one, 
from its lesser magnitude. Indeed, when small amounts of me- 
chanical effect are spoken of in English terms, it is generally said 
that they are equal to so many pounds raised so many feet high. 
That is to say, this takes place in some given time, as a minute, 
for example. The time must always be expressed or understood. 
It is impossible to express or state intelligibly an amount of 
mechanical effect, without indicating all the three terms — pressure, 
distance, and time. It is to the losing sight of this indispensable 
definition, that we may attribute the vagueness and unintelligibility 



of many treatises on this subject. The French engineers make 
the horse power equal to 75 kilogrammetres ; that is, to 75 kilog., 
raised one metre high per second. 

The motors generally employed in manufactures and industrial 
arts are of two kinds — living, as men and animals ; and inanimate, 
as air, water, gas, and steam. 

The latter class, being subject only to mechanical laws, can 
continue their action without limit. This is not the case with 
the first, which are susceptible of fatigue, after acting for a certain 
length of time, or duration of exertion, and require refreshment 
and repose. 

What may be termed the amount of a day's work, producible 
by men and animals, is the product of the force exerted, multiplied 
into the distance or space passed over, and the time during which 
the action is sustained. There will, however, in all cases, be a 
certain proportion of effort, in relation to the velocity and duration 
which will yield the largest possible product, or day's work, for 
any one individual, and this product may be termed the maximum 
effect. In other words, a man will produce a greater mechanical 
effect by exerting a certain effort, at a certain velocity, than he 
will by exerting a greater effort at a less velocity, or a less effort 
at a greater velocity, and the proportion of effort and velocity 
which will yield the maximum effect is different in different 
individuals. 



TABLE OF THE AVERAGE AMOUNT OF MECHANICAL EFFECT PRODUCIBLE BY MEN AND ANIMALS. 



Nature of the Work. 



Mein weight 

elevated or 

effort exerted. 



Velocity or 

<lisiance per 

second. 



Mechanical 

effect per 

second. 



Duration per Mechanical effect 
diem. per diem. 



A man ascending a slight incline, or a stair, without a burden, his work 

consisting simply in the elevation of his own weight, 

A labourer elevating a weight by means of a cord and pulley, the cord 

being pulled downwards, 

A labourer elevating a weight directly, with a cord, or by the hand, 

A labourer lifting or carrying a weight on his back, up a slight incline, or 

stair, and returning unladen, 

A labourer carrying materials in a wheel-barrow, up an incline of 1 in 12, 

and returning unladen, 

A labourer raising earth with a spade to a mean height of five feet,. . . . 

ACTION ON MACHINES. 

A labourer acting on a spoke-wheel, or inside a large drum. 

At the level of the axis, 

Near the bottom of the wheel, 

A labourer pushing or pulling horizontally, 

A labourer working at a winch handle, 

A labourer pushing and pulling alternately in a vertical direction, 

A horse drawing a carriage at an ordinary pace, 

A horse turning a mill at an ordinary pace, 

A horse turning a mill at a trot, 

An ox doing the same at an ordinary pace, 

A mule do. do. 

An ass do. do. 



Lbs. 

143 

40 
44 

143 

132 
60 



Feet. 

•50 

•65 
•56 

•13 

•06 
•13 



132 


•50 


26 


2-30 


26 


1-97 


174 


S- 46 


11 


3-61 


154 


2-95 


99 


2-95 


66 


656 


143 


1-97 


66 


2-95 


31 


262 



Lbs. raised 
1 fout high. 

715 



26-0 
24-6 

18-6 

8-5 
7-8 



660 
59-8 
512 

430 
397 
4543 
2920 
4330 
281-7 
191-7 
8 I -J, 



10 
10 



10 
8 
4* 

8 
8 



Lbs. raised 
1 fuut high. 

2,059,200 

561,600 
531,360 

401,760 

306,000 
280,000 



1,900,800 
1,722,240 
1.474.560 
1. -238,400 
1.143,360 
16,354,800 
9,600 
T.dl 1,600 
8.1 lai'tiO 
5,607,360 
2,338 



It may be gathered from this table that a labourer turning a 
winch handle can make its extremity pass through a distance of 
2-46 feet per second, or 60 x 2-46 = 147-6 feet per minute 
Then, supposing the handle has 13J inches, = 1-117 feet radius, 
which corresponds to a circumference of 6-28 x 1-1 17 = 7-2 feet 



at the point of application, the labourer is capable of an average 
velocity of 

i we 



7-2 



= 20 turns (nearly) per minute. 



Also, the Bame labourer exerting a fowe equal to 17i lbs with 



90 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the velocity of 2-46 feet per second, will produce a mechanical 
effect equal to 

17$ x 246 = 43 lbs. raised 1 foot high per second, or of 

43 x 60 = 2580 per minute, and 
2580 x 60 — 154,800 lbs. raised 1 foot high per hour. 
And as he can work at this 8 hours per diem, the total mechanical 
effect during this time will be, as indicated in the table, equal 
to 1,238,400 lbs. raised 1 foot high. 

We may then calculate that, as a day's work, a labourer 
turning a winch-handle can elevate in a continuous manner 17£ lbs. 
2-46 feet high per second ; when, however, the labourer has only 
to apply his strength, at intervals to a crane, a windlass, or a 
capstan, he can develop a much greater force for a few minutes. 
According to experiments tried in England with a discharging 
crane, a man can in 90" raise a load of 1048-6 lbs. to a height of 
16| feet. Now, to compare this with the tabulated quantities, 
we must multiply the weight raised, 1048-6 lbs., by the height, 
16i feet, and divide the product by the duration of the action, or 
90"; the quotient, 192, indicates the number of pounds raised 
1 foot high in a second, to which the mechanical effect is equal. 

It has been proved by experiments, that under the most 
favourable circumstances, an Irish labourer of extra strength can, 
by great exertion, raise to the same height, 16£ feet, a load of 
1474 lbs. in 132", which is equal to a mechanical effect of 
1474 x 16-5 



132 



= 184-25 lbs. raised 1 foot high per second. 



A man can evidently only exert such a force during a very 
limited period ; we cannot, therefore, compare this kind of labour 
with that which continues through several consecutive hours. 
Although the load and velocity as given in the table are those 
most conveniently proportioned to each other, still, when the case 
requires it, they might be altered to some extent ; thus, if it is 
necessary to apply a force of 25 lbs. to the extremity of the 
winch-handle instead of 17|, then the velocity would be reduced, 
and would become 

— = 1-72 feet per second, instead of 2-46. 

It has been ascertained from actual observations, that a horse, 
going at the respective rates of 1, 3, 5, and 10 miles per hour, 
cannot exert a greater tractive force than the corresponding 
weights, 194, 143, 100, and 24 lbs., and cannot draw anything 
appreciable when going at the rate of 15 miles per hour. 

Thus, when it is wished to increase the force exerted, a decrease 
takes place in the velocity ; and reciprocally, when it is wished 
to gain time and speed, it can only be done at the expense of the 
load. Thus, in the case of the winch-handle, the two factors 
must always produce an effect equal to 43 lbs. raised 1 foot high 
per second, whatever ratio they may have to each other. 

In all cases of the direct action of forces, a certain velocity is 
impressed, for without movement there could not be the action of 
a force. 

There are two kinds of motion — uniform and varied motion. 

243. Uniform Motion. — A body is said to have a uniform 
motion when it passes through equal distances in equal times. 
Thus, for example, if a body traverses 5 feet in the first second, 
5 feet in the second, and so on throusrhout, its motion is uniform. 



Putting D to represent the distance, V the velocity, and T the 
tune, the formula, D = V x T, indicates that the distance is 
equal to the velocity multiplied by the time. 

First Example. — The velocity of a body subject to a uniform 
motion is 3 feet per second, tlirough what distance will it have 
passed in 15 seconds ? 

D = 3 x 15 = 45 feet. 

From the preceding formula, D — V x T, is obtained V = -^ ; 

that is to say, the velocity per second is equal to the distance 

divided by the time. 

Second Example. — The distance passed through in 15 seconds 

is 45 feet, what is the velocity ? 

45 
V = — =3 feet, 
lo 

The wheel-gear of machinery, as well as many other instru- 
ments of transmission, is, for the most part, actuated in a uniform 
manner. 

244. Varied Motion. — When a body passes in equal times 
through distances which augment or decrease by equal quantities, 
the motion is called uniformly varied. 

The distance in motion uniformly varied is equal to half the 
sum of the extreme velocities multiplied by the time in second*. 

First Example. — What is the distance passed through in 4 
seconds by a body in motion, the velocity of which is 2 feet per 
second at starting, and 6 feet per second at the termination 1 

D = ^- x 4 = 16 feet. 

Second Example. — What is the distance passed through in 4 
seconds by a body in motion, which at starting has a velocity of 
6 feet per second, but which is gradually reduced to 2 feet 1 
6 + 2 



D 



x 4 = 16 feet. 



It will be seen from these two examples, that, with like condi 
tions, the total distance is the same for motions uniformly acce- 
lerated or retarded. 

The velocity at the end of a given time, in uniformly acceler- 
ated motion, is equal to the velocity at starting, plus the product 
of the increase per second into the time in seconds. 

First Example. — What velocity will a body have at the end of 
8 seconds, supposing the initial velocity = 1, and that it increases 
at the rate of 3 feet per second ? 

V = 1 + (8 x 3) = 25 feet. 

The velocity which, at the end of a given time, a body uniformly 
retarded should have, is equal to the initial velocity minus the 
product of the diminution per second, multiplied into the time in 
seconds. 

Second Example. — A body in motion starts with a velocity of 
22 feet per second, and its velocity decreases at the rate of 2 feet 
per second, what will be the velocity at the end of 10 seconds? 
V = 22 — (2 x 10) = 2 feet. 

245. The motions of which the various parts of machines are 
capable are of two principal kinds — continuous, and alternate or 
back and forward motion. 



-s? 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



91 



These two kinds of motion may take place either in straight or 
curved lines, the latter generally being circular. 

In the actual construction of machinery, we find that, from 
these principal descriptions of motions, the following combinations 
are derived : — 



Continuous rectilinear motion is converted 



into < 



Continuous rectilinear. 
Continuous circular. 
Alternate circular. 

Continuous rectilinear. 



{ Continuous rectum 
Alternate rectilinear motion is converted into < Continuous circula 

( Alternate circular. 

{Continuous rectilinear. 
Alternate rectilinear. 
Continuous circular. 
Alternate circular. 

Alternate rectilinear. 
Continuous circular. 
Alternate circular. 



Alternate circular motion is converted into 



THE SIMPLE MACHINES. 

246. This term is applied to those mechanical agents which 
enter as elements into the composition of all machinery, whether 
their function be to elevate loads, or to overcome resistances. 

The simple machines are generally considered to be six — the 
lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the 
screw, and the wedge. 

A much more scientific and comprehensive arrangement of the 
elementary machines is that lately suggested by Mr. G. P. Ren- 
shaw, C.E., of Nottingham. According to his system, the elemen- 
tary machines, or mechanical powers, are five — namely, the lever, 
the incline, the toggle or knee-joint, the pulley, and the ram. 

The wheel and axle, of the first system, is evidently but a 
modification of the lever, and the screw and wedge are modifi- 
cations of the inclined plane ; whilst no mention is made of the 
toggle-joint and ram — the last so well represented by the hydro- 
static press. 

All these machines act on the fundamental principle, known as 
that of virtual velocities. According to this principle, the pressure 
or resistance is inversely as the velocity or space passed through, 
or that would be passed through, if the piece were put in motion. 

The momentum of the power and resistance is equal when the 
machine is in equilibria. By momentum is understood the pro- 
duct of the power by the space passed through by the point of 
application. 

Time is occupied in the transmission of all mechanical force. 
In any mechanical action we do not see the effect and the cause 
at the same instant. Thus, in continuous motion, in which the 
time expended is not apparent at first sight, each succeeding por- 
tion of the motion is due to a portion* of the impelling action 
exerted a certain time previously. This will be moro obvious on 
observing the commencement and termination of any motion. 
Tho motion does not commence at the instant thai, the power is 
applied, nor does it cease at the exact moment of (he power's 
cessation. The fiction of the vis inertia has been invented to 
account for these latter observed facts, but it explains them very 
awkwardly. Thus, bodies are said to possess a certain force 
which is opposed to a change of state, whether from rest to motion 
or motion to rest. If such a resistive force existed, it would 
require an effort to overcome it, in addition to what is actually 



accounted for by the motion. If it is said that this is again given 
back at the termination of the motion, another fiction is required 
to account for it in the meantime, that is, during the continuation 
of the motion. Moreover, there is nothing analogous to it 
throughout the entire range of physical science. 

The facts are described in a much more simple and philosophi- 
cal manner, when they are said to arise from the time taken in the 
transmission of motive force. Why there should be this expen- 
diture of time is a more abstruse question. It probably arises 
from the elasticity of the component particles of bodies and 
resisting media, and is regulated by the laws which govern the 
relation to time of the vibrations of the pendulum. 

In all machines, a portion of the actuating power is lost or 
misapplied in overcoming the friction of the parts. 

247. The Lever. — The lever, in its simplest form, is an 
inflexible bar, capable of oscillation about a fixed centre, termed 
the fulcrum. A lever transmits the action of a power and a 
resistance, or load; the distance of the power, or load, from the 
centre o%oscillation, is called an arm of the lever. 

There are two kinds of power levers, distinguished by the posi- 
tion of the fulcrum as regards the power and the resistance. 
These become speed levers, by transposing the power and resist- 
ance. By a power machine, is meant one which gives an increase 
of power at the expense of speed, and by a speed machine, one 
that gives an increase of speed at the expense of power, and all 
the simple machines are one or the other, according to the relative 
position of the power and resistance. 

In all cases of the lever, the power and the resistance are in the 
inverse ratio to each other of their distances from the centre of oscil- 
lation. That is to say, that when, in equilibria, the momentum 
of the power, P x A, or the product of this power into the space 
described by the lever arm, A, is equal to the product, R x B, of 
the resistance, into the space described by the lever arm, b : whence 
the following inverse proportion : — 

P : R:: B: A; 

Any three of which terms being known, the fourth can be found 
at once. 

.248. The wheel and axle is a perpetual lever. As a power, the 
advantage gained is in the proportion of the radius of the circum- 
ference of the wheel to that of the axle. That is to say, the power, 
r, is to tho resistance, R, as the radius, b, of the axle, is to tho 
radius, a, of tho wheel, or tho length of the winch handle — in the 
simpler form of this machine, consisting of an axle and a winch 
handle. Tho samo rules and formula) obviously apply to this, as 
to the first described form of lever. 

Thus, multiply the resistance by tho radius of the axle, and 
divide by that of the handle, and the quotient will be the power. 

In windlasses and cranes, consisting of a system of wheel-work, 
tho power is applied to a handle fixed on the spindle of a pinion, 
which transmits tho power to a spur-wheel, fixed in the spindle of 
the barrel, about which the cord, or rope, carrying the load to be 
raised, is wound. 

Where there are several pairs of soch wheels, it is necessary to 

include in the calculations the ratios o\' the pinions to the spur* 

wheels. 



93 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



The proportional formula will, in thb case, be the same as fur a 
- — 

P : R :: b x 6' x b' : a x a' x a"; 
Or, the - - - stance, as the produst of the radii of 

the pinions and barrel is to the product of the radii of the spur- 
wheels and han . 

From Una we derive the following rules : — 

I. Mi Itiply the load to be raised by the product of the radius of 

the barrel into : is, and divide the sum obtained 

by the product of the radius of the handle into the radii of the spur- 

: uotient will be the power, : o the 

handle, will balance the load. 

D. I the power applied by the radius of the handle, and 

by th : - ■ . and dh'ide the product by the radius 

of the barrel, and by the radii of the pinions, and the quotient will 
be the resistance which will balance the power. 

HI. Mi :dii of the pinions and barrel, and dh'ide the 

product by the radii of the handle and spur-wheels, and the quotient 
wul be the ratio of the power to the resistance. • 

249. The I>"ci_dte. — When a body is raised up a ver 
plane, its whole weight is supported by the elevating power, and 
this power is consequently equal to the weight elev: - 

When a body is drawn along a horizontal plane, the tractive 
power has none of the weight of the body to sustain, but merely 
to overcome the friction of the sum: 

If, however, a body b drawn up an inclined plane, the power 
required to elevate it is proportionate to the inclination of the 
plane, in such a manner, that 

If the power ads parallel to the plane, the length of the plane will 
be to the lead as the height is to the power. 

The advantage gained by the use of the inclined plan 
power, is the greater the more its length outmeasures its height ; 
it is then the rado of the length to the height which determines 
that of the power to the reszstxnee, whence we obtain the follow- 
ing rules : — 

I. The resistance, ": y the height and divided by the length 

ofthepla | balance a body on the 

inclined plane, 

IL The power, multiplied by the length f lane and divided 

by the height, is equal to the resistance. 

IU. The resistance, midU t Ued by the height of the plane and 
divided by its lensr '-. .- *qual to the load on the plane. 

The wedge and the screw are noticeable modifications of the 
ine. An incline wrapped round a cylinder generates a screw. 
H -in used as a power-machine, it is generally combined with a 
lever, as in presses. The advantage gained depends upon the 
length of the lever and the pitch of the screw. Hultiplv the 
actuating force by the circumference described by the end of the 
arm or lever, and divide the product by the length of the pitch 
of the screw : the quotient, minus the frietion, which is verv con- 
siderable in these machines, will be the pressure exerted by the 
s i sw, and the velocity will, of course, be in the inverse ratio of 
the theoretical pressure to the actuating force. 

The Toggle. — This is met with chiefly in punching 
presses. Dedeoted springs and rods are also examples of it. and 
also the twisted cords used by carpenters to stretch their saws in 



frames. As in the other machines, the resistance is to the power, 
as the space passed through by the latter is to the space passed 
through by the former. 

351. The Pullet. — There are two kinds of pulleys, the one 
turning on fixed centres, the other on traversing centres. 

The pulley, which turns on a fixed een s 3 simply to 
change the direction of the motive force, without altering the 
relations of power and velocity. It is. in fact, only the mov.. 
9 which can be classed amongst the E 

A single moveable puBey, acting as a powe. - it at the 

expense of the speed ; thus, if a weight of 10 lbs. be suspended to 
one 3 "ill balance 20 lbs. hung to the axis 

of the pulley. This arises :. m the d . t. m the arrange- 

ment of the cord, the pulley only rises through half the height 
passed through by the motive force : thus, if the latter pass 
through 6 feet, the pulley will only rise 3 feet, and the resulting 
momentum of the power, 10 x 6, will be equal to th-at of the 
resastanc :-. or 20 x 3, so that the two will be in equilibrium. 

Though the stationary pulley cannot be considered 
mechanical power, yet, in changing the iBreetion of the motion, 
it affords great facilities in the application >f force - it is 

easier to pull downwards than upwards, as the labourer brings his 
ght t : bear in the former case. 

When several pulleys or sheaves are placed on one axis in a 
suitable frame, it b called a block. Where two or more blocks 
are employed, it b only the moveable ones which increase the 
power, and thb increase b equal to double the number of sheaves, 
or pulleys, in the block or ;' eks. 

The n _ . of the block, as a power, arises from 

the fact, that the space traversed by the motive power b equal to 
the sum of the doublings of the cord round th ,: the 

load is only elevated to a distance : . i r -_: ; nding to thb b 
divided by the number of these donbE . . - 

lock line and weight, in which the line goes round a pulley 
fixed in the weight, b an example of a speed-pu!i ■;-. \ : is, one 
in which the power, or : - - b transposed, for th 

or n; ex, causes the moveable end of 1 rd to pass 

through twice the space it passes through ifc 

252. The Ram. — 1'.. •: economical augmentor of 
power that we have. It b freer from friction and other di 
vantages than the other simp'.- machines, and it b, in its action, 
very closely allied to the pulley. Each derives its advan 
from the divbion of the points of support, for the proportionate 
area of the piston in the Bramah press represents the number of 
points over which the pressure, or re - - _ ■ . - Era sed. 

253. Remakes. — It is issential that, to avoid illusive mbtakes,. 
the student should perfectly understand, that when, in .. 
mechanical forces, the effect of the power applied ii augmented, 
the dbtance passed through by the resbtance, or load, b dimin- 
ished, with reference to that passed through by the power, in 

t same ratio that this is increased. Thb b true in a . 
cases, and may be stated thus : What we gain in force, by n: 
of machinery, we lose in speed, and rr i 

It follows from this, that the true object of machinery cannot 
be to augment the work performed by the motive agent, bol 

. ;rt any primary action in a manner appropriate to the 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



93 



circumstances in which the power is to be used. Thus we can 
make a very small force, as that of a man, elevate an enormous 
weight, but with a speed proportionately slow. 

Finally, The mechanical effect developed in a given time by a given 
force, through the instrumentality of machinery, must always equal the 
useful effect obtained, plus tlie amount lost in overcoming frictional 
and other resistances ; and the useful effect of machinery will be the 
greater, according as the causes of these resistances are diminished. 

CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 

254. All bodies are equally subjected to the action of weight. 
Gravity, or weight, is the action of that universal attraction which 
draws all bodies towards each other, and by which, in the case of 
bodies on the surface of the earth, these are drawn towards its 
centre. The power, of whatever nature it may be, wliich balances 
this action, is equal to the weight of the body. 

The curvature of the surface of the earth being quite inap- 
preciable for small distances, gravity is considered as acting in 
parallel lines, and its direction is given by the plumbline. 

The centre of gravity is that point in any body in which the 
action of its entire weight may be said to be concentrated. If 
the body be suspended by this point it will be in equilibrio, in 
whatever position it is put. 

The position of the centre of gravity depends upon the nature 
and form of any body ; it may generally be found in the follow- 
ing manner : — ■ 

Suspend the body by a thread attached to any point whatever 
in it; when the body is motionless, the line of the suspension 
thread will pass directly through the centre of gravity. Suspend 
the body by any other point, and the centre of gravity will also 
be in the continuation of the line of the thread, so that the actual 
centre must be at the point of intersection of the two lines thus 
obtained. This simple expedient reminds us of the application of 
the square to the finding of the centres of circles — the unknown 
centre on the endface of a shaft, for example — where the inter- 
section of any two lines, drawn along the blade of the square, 
when the head is laid against the periphery of the shaft in two 
different positions, gives the required point of centre. 

The centre of gravity of regular bodies, as spheres, cylinders, 
prisms, is in the centre of their configuration. 

The centre of gravity of an isosceles triangle is one third up 
the centre line which bisects the base. 

The centre of gravity of a pyramid, with a triangular or poly- 
gonal base, is one fourth up the line which joins the summit with 
the centre of gravity of the base. It is the same with a cone. 

The centre of gravity of a hemisphere is situated three-eighths 
up the radius at right angles to the base. 

The centre of gravity of an ellipse is in the point of intersection 
of the axes. 

When a body is placed in a vertical or inclined position on a 
plane, it is necessary, in order that it may rest upon it in thai po- 
sition without falling, (hat the vertical lino passing through tho 
centre of gravity shall fall within tho external outline of tho side 
in contact with tho plane. This limit, however, allows of consi- 
derable deviation from the vertical in the general contour of bodies, 

as is instanced in the case of leaning or inclined edifices. Tho 



stability of bodies increases as the extent of then- bases is greater 
in comparison with their height, and also, as the vertical line, 
passing through the centre of gravity, meets the plane on which 
the body rests nearer to the centre of the base. A body is said 
to be more stable when it requires a greater force to overturn it. 
A cone is more stable than a cylinder of the same height and base. 
The stability of walls depends greatly on the kind of foundations 
given to them, and on the proportionate extension of their bases. 

ON ESTIMATING THE POWER OF PRIME MOVERS. 

255. As we shall see further on, the power of prime movers 
may be calculated from the dimensions of the various parts of the 
engine. Still, the many different modes of construction tend to 
modify considerably the actual useful effect, and engineers have 
endeavoured to construct an apparatus, by means of which the 
actual power, or useful effect of engines, may be measured with 
exactitude. 

Prony's brake, which is the instrument most generally used for 
this purpose, acts on the principle of the lever, and consists of a 
cast-iron pulley in two halves, united by screws. This is fixed on 
the main shaft of the prime mover, the force of which it is wished 
to measure. It is embraced by two jaws, which may be tightened 
down upon the pulley by screws. To the lower jaw is attached 
a long lever, from the end of which is suspended a scale for 
weights. If it is known what power the engine was designed to 
possess, it is simply necessary to put into the scale the weight 
corresponding to this power, that is, the weight which, by the 
action of the lever, will give a pressure equal to the supposed 
power of the machine. 

Having fixed the apparatus on the engine, and provided means 
of efficiently lubricating the frictional surface of the pulley with 
soap and water, and having balanced the apparatus in such a 
manner that it will not be necessary to take into the calculation 
anything but the weight placed in the scale, the steam may be 
gradually let on. The engine will perhaps shortly acquire a 
greater velocity than that for which it was designed ; if this is tho 
case, the jaws are gradually screwed closer and closer upon the 
pulley. As the friction thereby increases, the velocity will dimi- 
nish, and full steam may be let on. After a short time, and when 
the friction is so great that the lever is raised slightly above 
the horizontal line, and the engine is going at its proper velocity, 
and the pressure of the steam at its correct point, so that tho 
power of the engine balances the load on the lever, it may be con- 
cluded that the engine develops the power for which it was in- 
tended. If the lever rises considerably, it will be necessary to 
increase the weight in the scale, so as to obtain the actual maxi- 
mum power of the engine ; ami, on the contrary, it' the engine does 

not appear to have the desired power, the weight must be reduced, 
by which means its actual power will be ascertainable. 

CALCULATION FOR THE BRAKE. 

256. The weight which will balance the force of a machine may 
be calculated when the length of the lever arm is known, or, more 
correctly, the radius from the centre of the shaft to the point of 
suspension of the Weight, anil the nominal hoise-powor, by tho 
following rule : — 



94 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Multiply the nominal horse-power by 33,000, and divide the pro- 
duct by llie circumference described by the end of the lever, and by 
the number of revolutions per minute, and the quotient will be the 
weight sought 

Let us take, for example, the main shaft of a, steam-engine of 
16 horse-power, which runs at the rate of 30 revolutions per 
minute, the radius of the brake being nine feet — 
16 x 33,000 



Here we have w = 



311-4 lbs. 



6-28 x 9 x 30 

Such is the net weight to be suspended from the end of the lever, 
the brake being previously balanced by being suspended on its 
centre of gravity. 



The actual power, or maximum effect of an engine, may like- 
wise be calculated by means of the following rule : — 

Multiply the circumference described by the lever, by the number 
of revolutions of the shaft per minute and by the weight in the 
scale, and divide the product by 33,000 and the quotient will be 
the actual force of the engine in horses power. 

For example, let us suppose that the main shaft of a steam- 
engine makes 30 revolutions per minute, that the radius of the 
lever is 9 feet, and that the net weight in the scale is 311-4 lbs., 
what is the maximum force of the engine 1 
„ 6-28 x 9 x30 x 311-4 



33,000 



= 16 H. P. 



TABLE OF HEIGHTS CORRESPONDING TO VARIOUS VELOCITIES OF FALLING BODIES. 





Velocity. 


Height. 


Velocity. 


Height. 


Velocity. 


Height. 


Velocity. 


Height. 


Velocity. 


Height. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inch*es. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 




•1 


•0001 


5-7 


•165 


16-5 


1-388 


44-5 


10-094 


72-5 


26-794 




•2 


•0002 


5-8 


•171 


17-0 


1-473 


45-0 


10-322 


73-0 


27-164 




•3 


•0005 


5-9 


•177 


17-5 


1-561 


45'5 


10-553 


73-5 


27-538 




•4 


•0009 


6-0 


•184 


18-0 


1-651 


46-0 


10-786 


74-0 


27-914 




•5 


•0013 


6-1 


•190 


18-5 


1-745 


46-5 


11-022 


74 - 5 


28-292 




•6 


■0019 


6-2 


•196 


19-0 


1-840 


47-0 


11-260 


75-0 


28-673 




•7 


•0026 


6-3 


•202 


19-5 


1-938 


47-5 


11-501 


75'5 


29-057 




•8 


■0034 


6-4 


•209 


20-0 


2-039 


48-0 


11-744 


76-0 


29-443 




•9 


•0043 


6-5 


•215 


20-5 


2-142 


48-5 


11-990 


76-5 


29-832 




1-0 


•0051 


66 


•222 


21-0 


2-248 


49-0 


12-239 


77-0 


30-223 




11 


■0062 


6-7 


■229 


21-5 


2-356 


49-5 


12-490 


7 7 '5 


30-617 




1-2 


•0074 


6-8 


•236 


22-0 


2-467 


50-0 


12-744 


78-0 


31-013 




1-3 


•0087 


6-9 


•243 


22-5 


2-580 


50-5 


is -ooo 


78-5 


31-412 




1-4 


■0101 


7 


•250 


23-0 


2-696 


51-0 


13-258 


79-0 


31-813 




1-5 


•0115 


7-1 


•257 


23-5 


2-815 


51-5 


13-520 


79-5 


32-217 




Id 


•0131 


7-2 


•264 


24-0 


2-936 


520 


13-784 


80-0 


32-624 




1-7 


■0148 


7-3 


•272 


24-5 


3-060 


52-5 


14-050 


80-5 


33-033 




1-8 


•0166 


7-4 


•279 


25-0 


3-186 


53-0 


14-319 


81-0 


33-445 




1-9 


•0185 


7-5 


•287 


25-5 


3-315 


53-5 


14-590 


81-5 


33-859 




2-0 


•0204 


7-6 


•295 


26-0 


3-446 


54-0 


14-864 


82-0 


34-275 




2-1 


•0225 


7-7 


•302 


26-5 


3-580 


54-5 


15-141 


82-5 


34-695 




2-2 


•0247 


7-8 


•310 


27-0 


3-716 


55-0 


15-420 


83-0 


35-116 




2-3 


•0270 


7-9 


•318 


27-5 


3-855 


55-5 


15701 


83-5 


35-541 




2-4 


•0294 


8-0 


•326 


28-0 


3-996 


560 


15-986 


84-0 


35-968 




2-5 


•0319 


8-1 


•334 


28-5 


4-140 


56-5 


16-272 


84-5 


36-397 




2-6 


■0345 


8-2 


•343 


29-0 


4-287 


57-0 


16-562 


85-0 


36-829 




2-7 


•0372 


8-3 


•351 


29-5 


4-436 


57-5 


16-854 


85-5 


37-264 




2-8 


•0400 


8-4 


■360 


30-0 


4-588 


58-0 


17-148 


86-0 


37-7ol 




2-9 


•0429 


8-5 


•368 


30-5 


4-742 


58-5 


17-445 


. 86-5 


38-141 




3-0 


■0459 


86 


•377 


31-0 


4-899 


59-0 


17-744 


87-0 


38-583 




3-1 


•0490 


87 


•386 


31-5 


5-058 


59-5 


18-046 


87-5 


39-028 




3-2 


•0522 


8-8 


•395 


32-0 


5-220 


60-0 


18-351 


88-0 


39-475 




3-3 


•0555 


89 


•404 


32-5 


5-384 


60-5 


18-658 


88-5 


39-925 




3-4 


•0589 


9-0 


•413 


33-0 


5-551 


61-0 


18-968 


89-0 


40-377 




35 


•0624 


9-1 


•422 


33-5 


5-721 


61-5 


19-2S0 


89-5 


40-832 




3-6 


•0660 


9-2 


•431 


34-0 


5-893 


62-0 


19-595 


90-0 


41-290 




3-7 


•0697 • 


9 3 


•441 


34-5 


6-067 


62-5 


19-912 


90-5 


41-750 




3-8 


•0735 


9-4 


•450 


35-0 


6-244 


63-0 


20-232 


91-0 


42-212 . 




3-9 


•0775 


9-5 


•460 


35-5 


6-424 


63-5 


20-554 


91-5 


42-677 




4-0 


•0816 


9-6 


•470 


36-0 


6-606 


64-0 


20-879 


92-0 


43-145 




4-1 


•0856 


9-7 


•480 


36-5 


6-791 


64-5 


21-207 


92-5 


43-615 




4-2 


•0899 


9-8 


•490 


37-0 


6-978 


65-0 


21-537 


93-0 


44-088 




4-3 


•0942 


9 9 


•500 


37-5 


7-168 


65-5 


21-869 


93-5 


44-563 




4-4 


•0986 


10-0 


•510 


38-0 


7-361 


66-0 


22-205 


94-0 


45-041 




4-5 


•1032 


10-5 


■562 


38-5 


7-556 


66-5 


22-542 


94-5 


45-522 




4-6 


■1078 


11-0 


•617 


39-0 


7-758 


67-0 


22-883 


95-0 


46-005 




4-7 


■1125 


11-5 


•674 


39-5 


7-953 


67-5 


23-225 


95-5 


46-490 




4-8 


•1174 


12-0 


•734 


40-0 


8-156 


68-0 


23-571 


96-0 


46-978 




4-9 


•1228 


12-5 


•797 


40-5 


8-361 


68-5 


23-919 


96-5 


47-469 




5-0 


•1274 


13-0 


•861 


41-0 


8-569 


69-0 


24-969 


97-0 


47-962 




5-1 


•1325 


13-5 


•929 


41-5 


8-779 


69-5 


24-622 


97-5 


48-458 




5-2 


•1378 


14-0 


•999 


42-0 


8-992 


70-0 


24-978 


98-0 


48-956 




53 


•1431 


14-5 


1-072 


42-5 


9-207 


70-5 


25-336 


98-5 


49-457 




5 4 


•1486 


15-0 


1-147 


43-0 


9-425 


71-0 


25-696 


99-0 


49-960 




5-5 


•1541 


15 - 5 


1-225 


43-5 


9-646 


71-5 


26-060 


99-5 


50-466 




6-6 


•1598 


16-0 


1-305 


44-0 

1 


9-869 


72-0 


26-425 


100-0 


50-975 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



9S 



THE FALL OF BODIES. 

258. When bodies fall freely of their own weight, the velocities 
which they acquire are proportionate to the time during which 
they have fallen, whilst the spaces passed through are as the 
squares of the times. 

It has been ascertained by experiment that a body falling freely 
from a state of rest, passes through a distance, of 16 feet and a 
small fraction, in the first second of time. At the end of this 
time it has a velocity equal to twice this distance per second. 

From this it follows that if the times of observation are — 



1" 
32 ft.. 

■ 16"., 



2" 3" 4" 

64 ft.... 96 ft... 128 ft. 



16' 



64 

48 



144 ' 
. 80' 



256" 

112", 

3, 4 
3, 4 
9, 16 
5, 1 



The corresponding velocities will be 
The spaces passed through from the 

commencement, 
The spaces passed through during each 
second, 
That is to say, that the times are as the numbers, 1, 2, 
The velocities also as, 1, 2, 

The spaces passed through as the squares, 1, 4, 

And the space for each interval as the odd numbers, 1, 3, 

These principles apply equally to all bodies, whatever may be 
their specific gravity, for gravity acts equally on all bodies ; the 
effect, however, being modified by the resistance of the media 
through which the bodies pass, which is greater in proportion, as 
the specific gravity is less. 

259. The velocity which a body will acquire in a given time 
when falling freely, will be found by multiplying the time ex- 
piessed in seconds by 32 feet. 

Example. — Let it be required to ascertain the velocity acquired 
by a body falling during 12 seconds. 

V = 12 x 32 = 384 feet per second. 

When a body falls from a given height, H, the ultimate velo- 
city, or that acquired by the time the base is reached, will be given 
by the formula (g being the velocity gravity causes a body to 
acquire in the first second) 

V = Y2gU, or V = V64 x H, 
which leads to the following rule : — Multiply the given height in 
feet by 64, and extract the square root, which will be the velocity 
in feet per second by the tune the body shall have fallen through 
the height, H, not taking resistance into consideration. 

Example. — What will be the ultimate velocity of a body falling 
a distance of 215 feet ? 



V = V64 x 215 = 117-3 feet per second. 
From the above formula, 

V = V2g~H, 
we obtain V = 2 g H, then 

V a V 2 

TT __ _ . 

2g 64' 
whence we have this rule : — Divide the square of the velocity in 
feet per second by 64, and the quotient will express the height 
through which a body must fall unimpeded, from a state of rest, in 
order to obtain that velocity. 

Example. — A body has acquired a velocity of 1173 foot per 
second, through what height must it have fallen ? 
117-3" 
64 

To obviate the necessity of calculating the corresponding heights 
and velocities, wo give a very extensive table, calculated for 
tontha of inches, Tho numbers, however, being equally correct 



H = 



215 foot, the height of the fall. 



as representing' feet or yards, those of both columns being of the 
same denomination. 

MOMENTUM. 

260. The force with which a body in motion strikes upon 

one in a state of rest, is equal to the product of the mass of 

the moving body multiplied into the velocity; this product is 

termed its momentum. If a body with a mass, m, is animated 

with a velocity, v, its momentum is equal to m v. The term, m, 

however, may be taken as signifying the mechanical effect of a 

weight falling during a second of time, or through 32 feet, there- 

w 
fore, m = — , that is, the weight in pounds divided by 32 feet, 

11) V 1) 

whence, m v 



g 

What distinguishes the simple momentum or force of impact of 
a body from the mechanical effect of a prime mover is, that 
whilst the former is due to a single impulse, we have in the latter 
to consider the continuous action of the impelling force. 

261. When a motive force imparts continuously a certain velo- 
city to a body, the result of its action is what may be termed vis 
viva, or continuous momentum ; it is numerically the product of 
the (moving) mass multiplied into the square of the velocity im- 
parted to it. 

Putting M to represent the mass of a body, and V the velocity 
impressed upon it, 



M V a or 



WY' 
g 



is the expression of the vis viva of the body. This force is double 
that developed by gravity. For, in fact, when a body of the 
weight, W, falls from a height, H, it acquires from its fall an 
ultimate velocity, V, which we have already shown to be equal to 



Y2) 



H =5i' 



and the mechanical effect, W H, is consequently expressed by 
WV 

HV 
now, putting for P, its value, M g, the formula becomes —~- • 

Thus, the mechanical effect developed by gravity is equal to 
half the vis vioa imparted to a body. 

CENTRAL FORCES. 

262. When a body revolves freely about an axis, it is said to 
bo subjected to two central forces ; the one, termed " centripetal," 
tends to draw the body to the axis ; the other, termed " centri- 
fugal," or tangential, and duo to the tendency of bodies in motion 
to proceed in straight lines, strives to carry the body away from 
the centre. These forces are equal, and act transversely to each 
other. 

Tho centrifugal effort exerted by a body in rotative motion, and 
which tends to separate the component particles, is expressed by 
the following formula: — 

WV 

F = k-, 

g x R 

In which W represents the weight ol' the body ; V, the velocity in 



96 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



feet per second ; and R, the radius, or distance of the centre of 
motion from the centre of the revolving body. 

Example. — Let a ball of the weight W = 23 lbs., attached to a 
radius, R, measuring 5 feet, rotate with a velocity, V — 40 feet 



per second, what is the centrifugal effort, or the pull of the ball on 
the radius? 



F = 



23 x 40 x 40 



32 x 5 



= 230 lbs. raised 1 foot high per second. 



CHAPTER VIL 



ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF SHADOWS. 



263. We have already, when treating of shadow lines, laid it 
down as a rule to be observed generally, in mechanical or geome- 
trical drawing, that the objects represented shall be supposed to 
receive the light in parallel rays, in the direction of the cubic dia- 
gonal, running from the upper left hand corner of the anterior face 
of the cube, down to the lower right hand comer of the posterior 
face. 

We have also shown that the horizontal and vertical projections 
of this cubic diagonal make angles of 45° with the horizontal or 
base line. 

The advantages of this assumption of the direction of the rays 
of light will, no doubt, have been appreciated. Amongst these, 
it has the merit of at first sight plainly pointing out the relative 
degrees of prominence of the various parts of an object, even with 
the aid of a single projection or view. 

264. This point, then, being determined, on considering an ob- 
ject of any form whatever, as receiving in this way the parallel rays 
of light, it may be conceived that these rays will form a cylindri- 
cal or prismatical column, the base of which will be the illumined 
outline of the object. The part met by these rays of light will 
be fully illumined, whilst the portions opposite to this will be as 
entirely void of light. The absence of light on this latter part 
may be termed the shadow proper of the object — that is, its own 
shadow upon itself. 

265. If, further, we suppose the luminous rays surrounding the 
object to be prolonged until intercepted by the surface upon, or 
adjacent to which it lies, a portion of such surface will be unillu- 
mined, because of the interception of some of the rays by the 
object ; the outline of this unillumined portion will be limited by, 
and depend upon the contour of the object, and it is termed the 
•shadow cast, or thrown, by an object on any surface. 

The line which separates the ifiumined from the unilluinined 
portion is termed the line of separation of light and shade, or the 
outline of the shadow. This is modified by the form of the reci- 
pient surface, as well as by that of the object which gives rise to it. 
It is always bounded by straight lines when the generating surfaces 
are planes ; and by curves when either or both are cylindrical, 
conical, spherical, or otherwise curved. 

266. As a general rule, the determination of the outlines of 
shadows proper, and cast, reduces itself to the problem of finding 
the point of contact of a straight line representing a luminous ray, 
with a plane or other surface. The application, however, of this 
general principle, though apparently so simple, gives rise to many 
difficulties in practice, from the variety of cases presented by the 
different forms of objects, and it is necessary to give several special 



examples, to explain the most simple and expeditious expedients 
which may be employed in such cases, always with a due regard 
to geometrical accuracy. 

We shall primarily choose for these applications objects of sim- 
ple form, and bounded by plane surfaces ; next, such as are wholly 
or partially cylindrical ; and we shall proceed, in succession, to 
objects of more complex forms. The objects which we have taken 
in preference, as examples, are such as are most frequently met 
with in machinery and architecture ; they will, notwithstanding, 
afford quite sufficient illustration in connection with what has to 
be said respecting the study of shadows. 

SHADOWS OF PRISMS, PYRAMIDS, AND CYLINDERS. 

Plate XXVI 

PRISMS. 

267. Let the figures 1 and 1 a be given, the horizontal and ver- 
tical projections of a cube, it is required to determine the form 
of the shadow cast by this cube on the horizontal plane. 

In the position given to this cube it is easy to see that the sides 
which are in the light are those represented by a d and a c, in the 
horizontal projection, and projected vertically in a' e' and a' c'. 
The opposite faces, b c and b d, fig. 1, and b' c', b' e', fig. 1 a, are 
consequently in the shade; as, however, these latter faces are 
reduced to mere lines in the representations, the shadow proper 
can only be shown by a thick shadow line, produced by China ink 
in line drawings, and by a narrow stroke of the brush in water- 
colour drawings. 

These lines, which distinguish the illumined sides of the cube 
from those which are not so, are termed, as we have said, the lines 
of separation of light and shade. It now only remains to find the 
shadow cast by the cube on the plane, l t. 

268. When the object rests on the horizontal plane, as supposed 
in this case, and is at a greater distance from the vertical plane than 
is equal to its height, the entire shadow cast by it will be in the 
horizontal plane; and to determine its outline here, it is merely 
requisite to draw straight lines from each comer of the cube, 
representing the rays of light, as c c, b b, d d, parallel to r, and to 
find the points, c, b, d, in which these lines meet the plane. 

To effect this, through the points, c', and a', fig. 1 a, the pro- 
jections of the two first, b d, draw the rays, c' c', and a' b', paral- 
lel to r', and meeting the base line, l t, in c' and b'. If now, 
through these points, we draw perpendiculars to the base line, as c' c 
B' b, these will cut the first rays in c, b, and d. The contour of 
the shadow cast is, in consequence, limited by the lines c c, c b, 
b d, and d d. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



97 



The face, e' b', being that on which the cube rests, has no pro- 
minence, and cannot therefore cast any shadow. It follows, then, 
that the shadow, as above determined, is all that is apparent. It 
is generally represented by a flat, uniform shade, laid on with the 
brush, and produced by a greyish wash of China ink. 

269. It will be observed that the lines, d b and b c, are parallel 
to the straight lines, d b and b c. This is because these are 
themselves parallel to the horizontal plane ; for when a line is 
parallel to a plane (82), its projection on this plane is a line paral- 
lel to itself; and hence we have this first consequence, that — • 

When a straight line is parallel to the plane of projection, it casts 
a shadow on the plane, in the form of an equal and parallel straight 
line. 

270. It will also be observed, that the straight lines, d d, b b, c c, 
which are the shadows cast by the verticals, projected in D, b, and 
c, are inclined at an angle of 45° to the base line; whence we 
dei'ive the second consequence, that — 

When a straight line is perpendicular to the plane of projection, 
it casts a shadow on the plane in the form of a straight line, parallel 
to the rays of light, and consequently inclined at an angle of 45° to 
the base line. 

271. These observations suggest a means of considerably simpli- 
fying the operations. Thus, in place of searching separately for 
each of the points, c, b, d, where the rays of light pierce the hori- 
zontal plane, it is sufficient to determine one of these points, such 
as b, for example, and through it to draw the straight lines, b d, be, 
parallel and equal to the sides, D b and b c, of the cube and 
intersecting lines, inclined at an angle of 45° drawn from the 
points, d c. 

In the actual case before us, we may even entirely dispense with 
the vertical projection, fig. 1", since it would have been sufficient 
to prolong the diagonal, a b, to b, making b b equal to b a, or to 
make the inclined lines, D d, or b b, equal to the diagonal, a b ; 
because the vertical projection, c' c', and horizontal projection, c c, 
of life same ray of light, are always of the same length, which fol- 
lows from our having taken the diagonal of the cube for the direc- 
tion of this ray, the two projections, a b and a' b', of this diagonal 
being obviously equal. Whence follows the third consequence, 
that — 

If, through any point of which the two projections are given, we 
draw a straight line, representing the ray of light, and if ice ascer- 
tain the point in which this ray meets either plane, the length of the 
ray in the other plane of projection will be the same. 

272. Finally, it is to be observed that the distance, b d, taken 
on the prolongation of the vertical line, c b, is equal to the entiro 
height, c' b', namely, that of the cube ; and consequently, in place 
of employing the diagonal to obtain the various points, d, b, c, we 
may make the distance, b d, equal to the height of the cube, and 
draw, through d, a straight line, d b, parallel and equal to D B, 
and through b a second, b c, parallel and equal to B c, and then 
join d D, c c. 

Thus the shadow cast on a plane by a point, is at a distance 
from the projection of the point, equal to Hie distance of the point 
itself from the piano. 

273. Figs. 2 and 2" roprcsent a prism of hexagonal base, sup- 
posed to be elevated above the base line, but at the same time at 



such a distance from the vertical plane, that all the shadow cast 
will be in the horizontal plane. 

It will be seen that the vertical faces, a b, b c, and a f, are 
illumined, whilst the opposite ones, e d, d c, and e f, are in the 
shade. 

Of these latter faces, c d is the only one visible in the vertical 
projection, fig. 2", and represented by the rectangle, c' d' h g, 
which should be shaded to a deeper tint than the cast shadows, 
to distinguish it. 

274. The operation by which we determine the shadow cast 
upon the horizontal plane, is evidently the same as in the preced- 
ing case ; still, since the lower base, j h, does not rest upon the 
horizontal plane, it will not be sufficient merely to draw the rays 
of light through the points, c, d, e, f, of the upper side ; it is, in 
addition, necessary to draw corresponding rays through the points, 
j, i, g, h, of the base. 

It is to be observed, as in the preceding case, that as these two 
faces are parallel to the horizontal plane, the shadow cast by each 
upon this plane will be a figure equal and parallel to itself; so that, 
in place of seeking all the points of the shadow, it would have 
been quite sufficient to obtain one of these points, as d, for 
example, of the upper side, and k, of the lower side, and then, 
starting from them, to draw a couple of hexagons, parallel and 
equal to a e c d e f. 

It will also be understood, that as it is only the outside lines, 
those of the separation of the light and shade, which make up the 
contour of the shadow, it is not necessary to determine the points 
which fall within this contour, and correspond to those points 
in the object itself which do not lie in the lines of separation of 
the illuminated and shaded parts. 

275. Thus it is unnecessary to find the points, a, b, e,h; and 
generally, in making drawings, we do not seek the shadows cast 
by points fully illuminated, or within the borders of the shaded 
portion ; and the contour of the shadow is derived simply from 
points lying in the line of separation of the light and shade on the 
object. 

276. From what we have already explained, it will be gathered, 
that the projection in one plane of the shadow, cast by a point, can 
be obtained by drawing the diagonal of the square, a side of which 
is equal to the distance of the point from the plane, as shown in 
the other projection. 

For example, the shadow, k, on the horizontal plane ol' the 
point, the two projections of which are f and i, figs. 2 and 2°, may 
be got by forming the square, f I k, a side of which, f /. is equal 
to the distance, i I', of the point from the horizontal piano. 

In (ho same way, we have (ho points, g, i,f, corresponding te 
g, r, f, which arc the same height as the 6rsl above the plane. 

For the points, c, d, e,f, which correspond to the upper side, 
a'd', of the prism, wo draw the. diagonal, o'd' t of the square, 
having for a side the height, v'm, of the point, i", above the 
horizontal plane, and set out this diagonal from C to c, D to d, 
E to c, iVc. 

v\ K.uim. 

277. Winn Bevera] Btraighl lines converge to a point, the 
Bhadows thej oasl on either plane of projection must neeeasaifly, 



PS 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



also, converge to a point. Thus, in the pyramid, figs. 3 and 3', 
the apex of which is projected in the points, s and s', the edges of 
all the sides being directed to this point, cast shadows on the. 
horizontal plane, bounded by lines converging to the point, s, the 
shadow cast by the apex on the same plane. In order, then, to 
find the shadow cast by a pyramid, on either of the planes of pro- 
jection, it is sufficient to draw the ray of light through the apex, 
and ascertain the point at which this ray meets the plane; then to 
draw lines to this point from all the angles of the base of the 
pyramid, if this rests upon the plane. If, however, the pyramid 
is raised above the plane, it will be necessary to find the shadows 
cast by the various angles of the base, and then draw straight 
lines from these to the shadow of the apex. 

TRUNCATED PYRAMID. 

278. When we have only the frustum of a pyramid to deal 
with, and the apex is not given, it is necessary to find the shadows 
cast both by the angles of the base, and by those of the surface of 
truncation. Thus, the points, e, f, g, h, of the upper side, cast 
then- shadows on the horizontal plane, in the points, e,f,g,h, 
which are obtained by drawing through each point, in the vertical 
projection, e', f', g', h', the rays, inclined at an angle of 45°, meet- 
ing the base line in the points e',f, g, h', which are squared over 
to the horizontal projection, so as to meet the corresponding rays, 
drawn through the points, E, f, g, h. Then, if we draw lines 
from the points, e,f,g, h, to the angles, a, b, c, d, situated in the 
horizontal plane, we shall obtain the shadows cast by each of the 
lateral edges of the pyramid. 

For the same reason that these edges are diversely inclined to 
the horizontal plane, the shadows cast by them on this plane have 
also different inclinations to the base line ; but the edges of the 
upper side or surface of truncation being parallel to this plane, 
cast a shadow, which in figure is equal and parallel to this side ; 
this would not have been the case had it been inclined to the 
plane. It is evident that, in the position in which the pyramid is 
represented with regard to the rays of light, the two faces, aeed 
and a e f s, are in the light, whilst then - opposites, d h g c and 
c g f b, are in the shade. This last, which is the only one visible 
in fig. 3", is there distinguished by a moderate shade of colour. 

cylinder. 

279. A cylinder with a circular base being a regular solid, all 
that is wanted, in determining the lines of separation of light and 
shade, is, when the cylinder is vertical, to draw a couple of planes 
tangential to it, and parallel to the rays of light, as in figs. 4 and 
4*. These tangential planes are projected in the horizontal plane, 
in the lines, A a, b b, tangents to the circle, and inclined at the 
angle of 45°. By their points of contact with the circle, these 
tangents give the lines of separation of light and shade, which are 
projected vertically in a' c and b' d. One of these lines is appa- 
rent on this view, but the other is not. We have thus the portion, 
a e b, of the cylinder, in the light, and its opposite, a f b, in the 
shade. A very small portion of this last is seen in fig. 4", and is 
there slightly shaded. 

280. With reference to" the cast shadow, it is to be remarked, 
that for the very reason that the lines of separation of light and 



shade are vertical, the shadows they will cast on the horizontal 
plane will be in two lines, c a and d b, with an inclination of 45°, 
as already explained, these fines being identical with the prolonga- 
tion of the tangential rays. The two bases of the cylinder being 
parallel to the horizontal plane, their shadows will be circles equal 
to themselves ; and all that is required is to find the shadows, n, o, 
cast by their respective centres, n and o', and with the points, n, o, 
as centres, to describe circles, with a radius equal to o a. The 
entire shadow cast by the cylinder is comprised between the two 
semicircles and the two tangents, c a, d b. 

SHADOW CAST BY ONE CYLINDER UPON ANOTHER. 

281. Hitherto we have only considered the shadow cast by an 
object upon one of the planes of projection. It frequently hap- 
pens, however, that one body casts a shadow on another, or that 
the configuration of the body itself is such, that one part of it casts 
a shadow on another. 

Let fig. 6 be the vertical projection of a short cylinder, a, with 
a concentric cylindrical head, b. We have, in the first place, to 
find the line of separation of light and shade upon these two 
cylinders ; and for this purpose we require to draw a second ver- 
tical projection, fig. 6", at right angles to the first, and in the fine 
of its axis. In this figure, the projection of the ray of light ateo 
makes an angle of 45° with the base line. We must, consequently* 
draw the two straight lines, c' c' and d' d', tangential to the circles, 
a' and b , and project, or square over, the points of contact, c' and 
d', to fig. 6, drawing the lines, a b and d d, which separate the 
light from the shaded part of the objects. Instead of drawing 
these tangents, we can directly obtain both points of contact, by 
drawing the radius, o c' d', at right angles to the ray of light. 

282. The shadow cast by the projecting head, b, upon the 
cylinder, a, is limited to that due to tho portion, d! c,' h', of the 
circumference. Different points in the outline of this shadow are 
determined, by first taking any points, c', e', f', g', upon the arc, 
d' c' h', and drawing through each of them lines, representing the 
parallel rays of light, and meeting the circumference of the cylin- 
der, a', in the points, c', e', /, g 1 . Having projected the first- 
mentionefl points on the base, d h (fig. 6), draw through the points, 
c, e, f, g, a series of lines parallel to the first, and likewise 
representing the rays of light, and square over the points of con- 
tact, c',e',f',g', which will give the points, c,e,f,g, of the curve, 
which is the outline of the shadow upon the cylinder, a. 

As seen in a former example, instead of squaring over the 
points, c', e',f',g', we can obtain the same result by making the 
corresponding rays, c c, e e, f/, g g, equal to the lines, c' c', e' e', 

F'fid'g'- 

SHADOW CAST BY A CYLINDER UPON A PRISM. 

283. Figs. 7 and 7° represent two vertical projections of a prism, 
a, of an octagonal base, having a cylindrical projecting head, b. 

As in the preceding case, draw the radius, o d', perpendicular 
to the ray of light, thereby obtaining the point of contact, d', and, 
in consequence, the line of separation, d d, of light and shade on 
the cylindrical head, b. 

The inclined facet, c' i', of the prism, being in the direction of 
the ray of light, and, consequently, inclined at an angle of 45° with 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



98 



the vortical plane, is considered to be completely in the shade. 
Tlie edge line, aft, fig. 7, is therefore the line of separation of 
light and shade on tho prism-shaped portion of the object, and 
the surface, a bid, is consequently tinted. The shadow cast upon 
the prism by the overhanging head, b, reduces itself to that due to 
the portion, c' p' h', merely, of the circumference of tho latter, and 
it falls upon the two faces, c' f and/' li', of tho latter. 

Tho lines indicated on tho diagram, with their corresponding 
letters, when compared with those of the preceding example, will 
show that tho operations are precisely (lie same in both cases, ami, 
in the latter, the curves, c ef and fg h, aro tho resulting outlines 
of tho shadow. In general, it is unnecessary to obtain more than 
the extremo points of tho curve, and anothor near the middle. 
Through tho three points thus obtained, arcs of circles can then bo 
drawn. The curves are, however, in reality elliptical. 

SHADOW CAST BY ONE PRISM UH)N ANOTHER. 

28 1. Figs. 8 and 8" represent a couple of vertical projections, at 
right angles to each other, of a prism of an octagonal base, sur- 
mounted by a similar and concentric, but larger prism. Although 
the operations called for in this case aro precisely the same as in the 
two preceding, still it is an exemplification which cannot bo omitted; 
and its chief uso is to show, that 

Tlie shadow cast by a straight line upon a plane surface is inva- 
riably a straight line; and, consequently, ii is sufficient to determine 
its extreme points, in order to obtain the entire shadow in any one 
plane. 

Thus, the straight lino, e' c', casts a shadow upon the plane 
facet, /'c, which is represented by the straight line, ec. 

It is further obvious, that 

Tlie shadow cast upon a plane surface, by any line parallel to if, 
vi us! Iw parallel to that line. 

Thus, tho straight line, E' g', of the larger prism, B, being paral- 
lel to the plane facet, f g', of the prism, a, casts a shadow upon 
the latter, which is represented by the straight \hw,fg, parallel to 
the line, fg, the vertical projection of the edge, f'g'. It is not, 
however, the same with the portion, ef, because the corresponding 
portion, e' f', of the edge of tho larger prism, is not parallel to tho 
facet,/ 1 e'. 

SHADOW CAST BY A PRISM UPON A CYLINDER. 

285. Figs, i) and !)" represent vertical projections, at right angles 

to each other, of a portion of an iron rod, a, surmounted by a con- 
cent rie head, c, of a. hexagonal base. The main object of (his 
diagram is to show, that 

11 hen aright, cylinder is parallel, or perpendicular, to a plane of 
projection, am/ straight line, which is perpendicular to the axis of the 
cylinder, and parallel to the plant of projection, easts a shadow upon 
ike cylindrical surface, which, is represented by a curve, similar to 
the cross section of such surface. 
' Ii', therefore, the cylinder is of circular base or cross section, as 

we have supposed in the present case, the shadow'' cast upon it, 
will be a portion Of a circle, Of the same radius as (he cylinder. 
Thus, the Straight line, D' F', situated in a plane, at right angles to 
(I,,, .in I of the cylinder, a, and being, at the same time, parallel lo 

tin', vertical plane, caste a shadow upon the cylinder, which is re- 



presented by the portion, c ef, of a circle, the centre, o', of which is 
obtained by drawing through the point, o, a line, o i, representing 
Ihe ray of light, and extending to the prolongation of the edge, d' 
F'. The line, o i, cuts the circumference of the cylinder in the 
point, if, which is squared over to i, upon the other projection, h i, 
fig. 9, of the ray, o I. The lower point, c, is obtained from the 
upper one, i, being symmetrical with reference to the axis of tho 
cylinder. The ray, H i, being continued to the axis, cuts it in the 
point, </, which is, consequently, the centre of the arc, c e i, the 
radius, i o' or c o', of which is equal to that, /', of the cylinder. 

286. Tho edge, f' ii', although situated in a plane perpendicular 
to tho axis of the cylinder, is not parallel to the vertical plane, and 
does not, therefore, cast a shadow of a circular outline upon tho 
cylinder, but one of an elliptical outline, as f g h, which is obtain- 
ed by means of points, tho operations being fully indicated on the 
diagrams. If tho head, B, which casts a shadow upon the cylin- 
der, were square, instead of hexagonal, as is often the case, ono 
of the sides of the square, as i n', fig. !>", being perpendicular to 
the vertical plane, would cast a shadow on the cylinder, having 
for outline the straight, line, II /', making the angle of 15' with the 
axis. 

Thus, whenever a straight line is perpendicular to the plane of 
projection, not only is its shadow, as cast upon this plane, a straight 
line, incline! at the angle of 45°, but it is also the same on an object 
projected in this plane, no matter if what form. 

Observation. — In tho four examples last, discussed, we have only 
represented half views of the objects in the auxiliary vertical pro- 
jections, tigs. 0", 7," 8", and 9", this being quite sufficient for deter- 
mining Ihe shadow, as if is only that produced by this half which is 
seen. It is obvious, that tho same operations will answer the pur- 
pose, whether the axis of tho object be horizontal or vertical. 

SHADOW CAST BY A CYUMH'.K IN AN OBLIQUE POSITION. 

287. In figs. 5 and 5*, we have given the horizontal and vertical 

projections of a right cylinder, having its axis horizontal, but 
inclined to the vertical plane. As in this oblique projection wo 

cannot obtain the points of contact of the luminous rays with the 
base in a direct manner, it becomes necessary to make an especial 
diagram, in order to determine the lines of separation of lighl and 
shade, which are always straight lines, parallel to the axis of the 

cylinder. 

To Ibis effect, we shall make use of a general construction, sus- 
ceptible of application to a variety of such cases. This construction 

consists in determining the projection of the luminous ray, in any 

given plane, perpendicular to either of the geometrical planes, w hence 
may be derived its form and aspect in either ol' Ihe hitler planes. 
It follows, that if We have any curve in the given plane, wo can 
easily find the point, of separation of the light, and shade shunted 
upon this curve, by drawing a couple of tangents to it, parallel to 

the ray of light projected in this plane, and transferred i" ihe other 

plane of projection. 

Thus, let K o and i:' o' be the projections of the luminous | 
it is proposed to find Ihe projeclioii of ibis ray upon Ihe plane, a b, 
of the base of the cylinder. To obtain this, project the poinl. i. 
lo r, by means id' a perpendicular to u b. and r o represents the 

horizontal projection of the raj of lighl upon the plane, .* b . ud 



LOfC. 



100 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the vertical projection, r' o', is obtained by squaring over the point, 
o to o', on the base line, and the point, r to ?•', on the horizontal, 
r' e\ and then joining o' r . Next, draw tangents to the ellipses, 
which represent the vertical projections of the ends of the cylinder, 
fig. 5", making these tangents parallel to the ray of light, / o'. 
Their points of contact give, on the one hand, the first line, c' d', 
of separation of light and shade, which is visible in the vertical pro- 
jection, and, on the other hand, the second line, e'fr, which is not 
visible in that projection. 

By squaring over these points of contact, respectively, to the two 
ends, a b and g h, of the cylinder, in the horizontal projection, we 
obtain the same lines of separation of light and shade, c d and/e, 
as in this projection ; the former of which lines is invisible, whilst 
the latter is visible. 

The same lines, c d and/e, fig. 5, can be obtained independently 
of the vertical projection, fig. 5°, in the following manner: — Draw 
an end view of the cylinder, as at « 2 & 2 , having its centre in the con- 
tinuation of the cylinder's axis. Upon this end view, also, draw 
the ray of light, as projected upon the base, after describing the 
circle, a 2 m b, with the radius, o a ; make r r 2 equal to the height of 
the point, r', above the bottom of the cylinder, thereby obtaining 
the line, o r 2 , representing the ray of light upon the end view of the 
cylinder. Next, draw a couple of tangents to the circle, a 2 m i 2 , 
parallel to o r 2 , and their points of contact, c 2 ,/ 2 , will represent the 
end view of the lines of separation of light and shade, which are 
transferred to the horizontal projection, fig. 5, by perpendiculars 
drawn from them to the straight line, a b. 

288. When the shadow proper, of the cylinder, has been thus 
determined, it will not be difficult to find the outline of its shadow 
cast upon the horizontal plane. In the first place, the shadows of 
the two bases are found, being in the form of ellipses ; and next, 
those, c" d" and /" e", cast by the lines, c d and fe ; namely, those 
of the separation of light and shade upon the object itself. These 
fines will necessarily be tangents to the ellipses, representing the 
shadows of the bases. It may be observed, that the transverse 
axes of the ellipses are parallel to the line, r 2 o. 

If the cylinder were inclined at an angle of 4.5° to the vertical 
plane, still remaining parallel, however, to the horizontal plane, the 
lines of separation of light and shade would, in the horizontal pro- 
jection, be confounded with the extreme generatrices, or outlines, 
of the cylinder, the visible semicylinder being wholly in the light, 
and the opposite semicylinder wholly in the shade. In the vertical 
projection, the line of separation would be in the line of the axis, 
and would divide the figure horizontally into two equal parts. 



PRINCIPLES OF SHADING. 

Plate XXVII. 

289. Before proceeding to the further study of shadows, we must 
observe that shadows, proper and cast — which are simply represent- 
ed by flat tints, so as not to render the diagrams confused — should 
be modified in intensity according to the form of the objects, and 
the position of their surfaces with reference to the light. 

The study of shading carries us somewhat into the province of 
the non-mechanieal painter, who is guided by his taste rather than 



by mathematical rules ; still, whilst we acknowledge the difficulty 
of laying down an exact theory on this subject, we would recom- 
mend the following systematic methods, which will render the first 
difficulties of the study more easily surmountable. 

In painting, and in every description of drawing, the effects of 
light and shade depend upon the following principles : — 

ILLUMINED SURFACES. 

290. When an illumined- surface has all its points at an equal 
distance from the eye, it must receive a clear shade of uniform inten- 
sity throughout. 

In geometrical drawing, where all the visual rays are supposed 
to be parallel and perpendicular to the plane of projection, all sur- 
faces parallel to this plane have all their points equally distant from 
the eye : such is the plane and vertical surface, a b c d, of the 
prism, fig. A. 

291. Of two such surfaces, disposed parallel to each other, and 
illumined in the same manner, that which is nearer to the eye should 
receive a shade of less intensity. 

292. Any illumined surface, inclined to the plane of the picture, 
having its points at varying distances from the eye, should receive a 
shade of varying intensity. 

Now, according to the foregoing principle, it is the most advanced 
portion of an object which ought to be the lightest in colour ; this 
effect is produced on the face, a dfe, which, as shown in the plan, 
fig. 1, is inclined to the vertical plane of projection. 

293. Of two illumined surfaces, that which is more directly pre- 
sented to the rays of light should receive a shade of less intensity. 

Thus, the face, e' a', fig. 1, being presented more directly to the 
light than the face, a' b', is covered with a shade which, being gra- 
duated because of the inclination to the plane of the picture, is 
still, at the more advanced portion, of less intensity than that of the 
latter face. It is near the edge, a d, that the difference is more 
sensible. 

SURFACES IN THE SHADE. 

294. When a surface in the shade is parallel to the plane of pro- 
jection, or of the picture, it must receive a deep lint of uniform inten- 
sity throughout. 

An exemplification of this will be seen on the -fillet, b, fig. ©, 
Plate XXVIIL, which is parallel to the vertical plane : the differ- 
ence of shade upon this fillet, in comparison with that upon the 
more projecting portion, a, which is parallel to it, but in the light, 
distinctly points out the difference between an illumined surface and 
one in the shade, in conformity with the two principles, 290 and 
294. 

295. Of two parallel surfaces in the shade, that nearer the eye 
should receive the deeper tint. 

Thus, the shadow cast upon the fillet, B, fig. ©, Plate XXVIII., 
is sensibly deeper than that cast by it upon the vertical plane, which 
is more distant. 

296. When a surface in the shade is inclined to the plane of the 
picture, the part nearest to the eye should receive the deepest lint. 

The face, bghc, fig. A, Plate XXVIX, projected horizontally in 
b'g', fig. 1, is thus situated. The shade is made considerably 
deeper near the edge, b c, than near the more distant one, g /t. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



101 



297. When two surfaces in the shade are unequally inclined, 
wiih reference to the direction of the rays of light., the shadow cast 
by any object should be deeper upon that which receives it more 
direaly. 

Thus, the shadow, a df e, cast upon the face, F, of the prism, 
fig- H, Plate XXVI., should be slightly stronger than that cast 
upon the face, g, because the first is more directly presented to 
the light than the second, as shown by the lines, /' h' and /' c', 
fig. T. 

These first principles are exemplified in the finished figures on 
Plate XXVI., XXVIL, and subsequent ones. 

As, in order to produce the gradations of shades, it is important 
to have some knowledge of actual colouring or shading by means 
of the brush, we shall proceed to give a few short explanations of 
this matter. 

Two methods of producing the graduated shades are in use — 
one consisting in laying on a succession of flat tints ; the other, in 
softening off the shade by the manipulation of the brush. 

We have already said two or three words about the laying on of 
flat tints, when treating of representing sections by distinguishing 
colours. (137.) These first precepts may serve as a basis for the 
first method of shading, which is the less difficult of the two for 
beginners. In fact, according to it, the graduated shade is produced 
by the simple superposition of a number of flat tints. 

FLAT-TINTED SHADING, 

298. Let it be required to shade a prism, A, Plate XVII., with 
flat tints : — 

According to the position of this prism, with reference to the 
plane of projection, as seen in fig. 1, it appears that the face, a! b'> 
is parallel to the vertical plane, and is fully illumined ; it should, 
consequently, receive a clear uniform tint, spread over it by the 
brush, and made either from China ink or sepia, as has been done 
upon the rectangle, a, b, c, d, fig. A. When the surface to be 
washed is of considerable extent, the paper should first be prepared 
by a very light wash, the full intensity required being arrived at by 
a second or third. (137.) 

The face, b' g', being inclined to the vertical plane, and com- 
pletely in the shade, should receive a tint (294) deepest at the 
edge, b c, and gradually less intense towards g h ; this is obtained 
by laying on several flat shades, each of different extent. For this 
purpose, and to proceed in a regular manner, wo recommend the 
student to divide the face, b' g', fig. 1, into several equal parts, as 
in the points, 1', 2', and through these points to draw lines parallel 
to the sides, b c, g h, fig. A. Theso lines should be drawn very 
lightly indeed, in pencil, as they are merely for guides. A first 
greyish tint is then spread over the surface comprised between the 
first line, 1 — 1, and the side, b c, as in fig. 2; when this is quite 
dry, a second like it is laid on, covering the first, and extending 
from the side, /; c, to the line, 2 — 2, as in fig. 3. Finally, these 
are covered with a third wash, as in fig. A, extending to the outer 

edge, gh, and completing the graduated shade of the rectangle, 

b r g h. 

Tlie number of washes by which (he gradation is expressed, 
evidently depends upon the width of the surface to be shaded ; 
and it will be seen that the greater the number Of washes used, 



the lighter they should be, and the lines produced by the edges of 
each will be less hard, and a more beautiful effect will result. 

The student must remember to efface the pencilled guide-lines, 
as soon as the washes are sufficiently dry. 

299. This method of overlaying the washes, and covering a 
greater extent of surface at each succeeding time, is preferable to 
the one sometimes adopted, according to which the whole surface, 
b gh c, is first covered by a uniform wash; a second being then 
laid over b 2 — 2 c; and finally, a third over the narrow strip, 
b 1 — 1 c. When the shade is produced in this manner, the edges of 
the washes are always harder than when the washes are laid on as 
we recommend — the narrowest first — for the subsequent washes, 
coming over the edge of each preceding one, soften it to a consi- 
derable extent. 

The face, d a 1 , fig. 1, being likewise inclined to the vertical plane, 
but being wholly illumined, should receive a very light shade (292), 
being, however, a little bolder towards the outer edge, ef, fig. A. 
The shade is produced in the same way as that of the face, b' g\ 
but with much fainter washes. 

300. Let it be proposed to shade a cylinder, fig. ]B, with a series 
of flat tints : — 

In a cylinder, it is necessary to give the gradations of shade, both 
of the illumined and of the non-illumined portion. In reference to 
this, it will be recollected that the line of separation, a b, of light 
and shade, is determined by the radius inclined at an angle of 45°, 
as o a, fig. 4, perpendicular to the ray of light ; consequently, all 
the shadow proper, which is apparent in the vertical projection, fig. 
13, is comprised between the line, a b, and the extreme generatrix, 
c d. Consequently, according to the principle already laid down 
(296), the shade of this portion of the surface should be graduated 
from a b to c d, as was the case with the inclined plane surface, b' g', 
fig. 1, the greater intensity being towards a b. 

On the other hand, all that part of the cylinder comprised be- 
tween the line, a b, and the extreme generatrix,/^, is in the light ; 
at the same time, from its rounded form, each generatrix is at a 
different distance from the vertical plane of projection, and makes 
different angles with the ray of light. Consequently, this portion 
of the surface should receive graduated shades. (292.) To express 
the effect in a proper manner, it is necessary to know what part of 
the surface is the clearest and most brilliant ; and this is evidently 
the part about the generatrix, e i, fig. \B, situated in the vertical 
plane of the ray of light, r o, tig. 4. In consequence, however, 
of the visual rays being perpendicular to the vertical plane and 
parallel to the line, v o, the portion which appears to the eve to 
be the clearest will be nearer to this lino, v o, and may be limited, 
on the one hand, by the line, T o, bisecting the angle made by the 
lines, R o and v o, and on the other, by the line, B o; squaring 

over, then, the points, <■' and m', fig, I. and drawing the lines, <• 
and in a, tig. [i3, we obtain the surface, e i m n, which is the moa 
illumined. 

301. This surface is bright, and remains white, when the cylindej 
is polished, as a turned iron shaft, for example, or a marble column 
it is covered with :i lighl shade, being always clearer, however, den 
the rest ef the surface, when the cylinder is unpolished) as a oast 
iron pipe. 

302. After these preliminary observations, we may prooeed to 



102 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



shade the cylinder, /' m' a' e', fig. 4, dividing it into a certain num- 
ber of equal parts, the more numerous according as the cylinder is 
greater. These divisions are squared over to the vertical projection, 
and straight lines drawn lightly with the pencil, as limiting guides 
for the colour. We then lay a light gray shade on the surface, 
a c db, fig. 5, to distinguish at once the part in the shade ; when 
this is dry, we lay on a second covering, the line, a b, of separation 
of light and shade, and extending over a division on either side of 
it, as shown in fig. 6 ; we afterwards lay on a third shade, covering 
two divisions to the right and to the left, as in fig. 7 ; and proceed 
in the same manner, covering more and more each time, always 
keeping to the pencil lines. The different stages are represented 
in figs. 8, 9, and 10. 

303. We next shade the part,/e ig, laying on successive shades, 
but lighter than the preceding, as indicated in figs. 8, 9, and 10. 

The operation is finally terminated by laying a light wash over 
the whole, leaving untouched only a very small portion of the bright 
surface, emni, fig. 13. This last wash has a beautiful and soften- 
ing effect. 

SHADING BT SOFTENED WASHES. 

304. This system of shading differs from the former in producing 
the effects of light and shade by imperceptible gradations, obtained 
by manipulation with the brush in the laying on of the colour : this 
system possesses the advantage over the first, of not leaving any 
lines, dividing the different degrees of shade, which sometimes ap- 
pear harsh to the eye, and seem to represent facets or flutings, 
which do not exist. 

For machinery, however, the former system is very effective, 
bringing out the objects so shaded in a remarkable manner. In- 
deed, we recommend all machinery to be shaded in tMs manner, 
whilst architectural subjects will look better treated according to 
the second system. 

In this, the laying on of the shade is much more difficult, requir- 
ing considerable practice, which will be aided by proceeding in the 
following systematic course. 

305. Let it be proposed to shade a truncated hexagonal pyramid, 
fig. @, Plate XXVH. 

The position of this solid, with reference to the vertical plane 
of projection, is the same as that of the prism, fig. A. Thus the 
face, abed, should receive a uniform flat shade of little intensity ; 
rigorously keeping to rules, this should be slightly graduated from 
top to bottom, as the face is not quite parallel to the vertical 
plane. 

The face, b gh c, being inclined, and also in the shade, should 
receive a deep shade, graduated from b do gh; to this effect ap- 
ply a first light shade to the side, b c, fig. 15, softening it off to the 
right, taking the line, 1 — 1, as a limiting guide in that direction: 
this softening is produced by clearing the brush, so that the colour 
may be all expended before the lighter side is reached ; and when 
the shade is wide, a little water should be taken up in the brush 
once or twice, to attenuate the colour remaining in it. By these 
means an effect will be produced like that indicated in fig. 15., care 
being taken not to extend the wash beyond the outline of the 
object. 



When tliis first wash is well dry, a second is laid over it, produc- / 
ed exactly in the same manner, and extending further to the right, 
covering the space, b c 2 — 2, as shown in fig. 16. Proceeding 
in the same manner, according to the number of divisions of the 
face, we at length cover the whole, producing the graduated shade, 
bghc, fig. ®. 

The operations are the same for the face, e a df, which is nearly 
perpendicular to the rays of light, but is considerably inclined to the 
plane of projection. 

In rigorously following out the established principles, the shade 
on this face should be graduated, not only from e/to a d, but also 
from e a to fd. Also, on the face, bghc, in the shade, the tint 
should be a trifle darker at the base, c h, being graduated off 
towards b g. But for objects so simple in form as the one under 
consideration, this nicety may be neglected — at any rate, by the 
beginner — as only increasing Ms difficulties ; the proficient, on the 
other hand, is well aware how attention to these refinements assists 
in producing effective and truthful representations. 

306. Let it be proposed to shade a cylinder with softened washes, 
fig. ©, Plate XXVII. 

By following the indications given in fig. 4, for the regular im- 
position of the shades, as explained with reference to the flat-wash 
shading, the desired effect may be similarly produced by substituting 
the softened washes. It is scarcely necessary to divide the circum- 
ference into so many parts as for the former method ; a first shade 
must be laid on at the line, a b, of separation of light and shade, 
and this must be softened off in both directions, as in fig. 11; a 
second and a third wash must then be applied and similarly softened 
off, and in this manner we attain the effects rendered in figs. 12, 
13, and ©. 

We have not deemed it necessary to give diagrams of all the 
stages, as the method of procedure will be easily understood from 
preceding examples. The student should practise these methods 
upon different objects of simple form, and he will thereby rapidly 
acquire the necessary facility. 

307. When spots or inequalities' arise in laying on a wash, from 
defects in the paper or other accidents, they should be corrected 
with great care. If they err on the dark side, they should, if pos- 
sible, be washed out ; the best means of doing this, in very bad cases, 
is to let the drawing become perfectly dry, and then slightly moisten 
the spots, and gently rub off the colour with a clean rag. Lights 
may be taken out in this way, where, from then- minuteness or 
intricate shape, it would be difficult to leave them whilst laying on 
a flat shade, in the midst of which they may happen to be. A de- 
fect on the light side is more easily corrected, by applying more 
colour to the spots in question — being careful to soften off the 
edges, and to equalize the whole wash. 

Figs. A, H, ©, E), H, Plate XXVL, represent several shaded 
objects, the shadows of which have already been discussed, as indi- 
cated in figs. 1 to 9. These may serve as guides, also, in shading 
with washes of colour, although the shades in that plate are pro- 
duced by lines, whilst the figures in Plate XXVH. represent the 
actual appearance of the wash-shading method. 

Finally, we have to recommend the adoption of a much larger 
scale for practice, as it is desirable to be able to prodw e large 
washes with regularity and smoothness of effect. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



103 



CONTINUATION OF THE STUDY OF SHADOWS. 
Plate XXVIIL 

SHADOW CAST UPON THE INTERIOR OF A CYLINDER. 

308. When a hollow cylinder, as a steam-engine cylinder, a cast- 
iron column, or a pipe, is cut by a plane passing through its axis, 
we have, on the one hand, a straight projecting edge, and, on the 
other, a portion of one of the ends, which cast shadows upon the 
internal surface of the cylinder. 

We propose, then, to determine the form, as projected, of the 
shadow cast upon its interior by a steam-engine cylinder, a, sec- 
tioned by a plane passing through its axis, figs. 1 and 1°. In the 
first place, we seek the position of the shadow cast by the rectilinear 
projecting edge, b c, which is, in fact, produced by the intersecting 
plane, b' a'. This straight line, B c, being vertical, is projected 
horizontally in the point, b', and casts a shadow upon the cylinder, 
as represented by the straight line, bf, which is also vertical, and 
is determined by the point, b , of intersection of the ray of light, 
b' b', with the surface of the cylinder, b' b' o'. Thus, when a 
straight line is parallel to a generatrix of the cylinder, the shadow 
cast by it will be a straight line parallel to the axis. It is, therefore, 
evidently quite sufficient to find a single point, whence the entire 
shadow may be derived. 

309. We next proceed to determine the shadow cast upon the 
interior of the cylinder by the circular portion, b' e' f', of the upper 
end. If we take any point, e', on this circle, and square it over to 
E in the vertical projection, and draw through this point a ray of 
light, e' e', e e, it will be found to meet the cylindrical surface in 
the point, e 1 , which is squared over to e, the length of the ray being 
equal in both projections, according to the well known rule. This 
applies to any point in the arc, e' f'. The extreme point on one 
side is obtained by a tangent to the circle in the point, f', giving 
the point, f, in the vertical projection ; the opposite extreme point, 
b, being already given as the top point of the straight edge, b c ; we 
have, therefore, the curve, Feb, for the upper outline of the shadow 
due to the circular portion, b' e' f\ 

310. If, as in figs. 1 and 1", we suppose the piston, f, with its 
rod, t, to be retained unsectioned in the cylinder, we shall have to 
determine the form of the shadow cast by the projecting part of 
the piston upon the interior of the cylinder, and represented by the 
curve, d h o. For this purpose wo take any points, b', h', o', on the 
circumference of the piston, and draw through them, in both pro- 
jections, the rays of light which meet the surface of the cylinder, 
B' b' d, in the points, b' h' o', which are projected vertically in dho: 
the curve passing through these points is the outline of the shadow 
sought. The curved portions of these shadows are elliptical, 

The piston-rod, t, being cylindrical and vertical, casts a shadow, 
of a rectangular form, upon tho interior of tho cylinder, the vertical 
sides, ij, k I, being determined by the lmninar tangents, i' »', k' k', 
parallel to the axis. 

SHADOW CAST BY ONE CYLINDER UPON ANOTHER. 

811. Let figs. 2 and 2" be tho projections of a convex somi- 



cylinder, a, tangential to a concave semicylinder, b, forming a pat- 
tern often met with in mouldings. 

This problem, which consists in determining the shadow proper 
of a convex cylinder, together with that cast by it upon the surfaco 
of a concave cylinder, in addition to that cast by the latter upon 
itself, is a combination of the cases discussed in reference to figs. 4 
and 4", Plate XXVI., and to figs. 1 and 1" in the present plate. The 
operations called for here are fully indicated on the diagram ; and 
we have merely to remark, that it is always well to start by deter- 
mining the extreme points, as c', d,' which limit the shadow proper, 
c g, and cast shadow, d eg: these points may be obtained more 
exactly, as already pointed out, by drawing the radii, o c' and d' e, 
perpendicular to the luminous rays. 

SHADOWS OF CONES. 

312. In this branch of the study, we propose to determine, first, 
the shadow proper, or the line of separation of light and shade upon 
the surface of the cone ; second, the shadow cast by the cone upon 
the vertical plane of projection ; and, thud, the shadow cast upon 
the cone, and upon the vertical plane of projection, by a prism of a 
square base, placed horizontally over the cone. 

313. First: We have laid it down as a general principle, that, in 
order to determine the shadow proper of any surface, it is necessary 
to draw a series of parallel luminous rays tangential to this surface. 
When, however, the body is a solid of revolution generated by a 
straight line, as a cylinder or a cone, it is sufficient to draw tangen- 
tial planes parallel to the luminous rays, to obtain the lines of sepa- 
ration of light and shade. 

In the case of the cone represented in figs. 3 and 3", and of which 
the axis, s t, is vertical, the operation consists in drawing from the 
apex, s and s', two lines, making angles of 45°, as s s and s' s', 
giving, in the point, s', the shadow cast by this apex upon the hori- 
zontal plane. From this point we draw a straight line, a' s', tan- 
gential to the base, a' c' b', of the cone. This straight line repre- 
sents the plane, tangential to the cone, as intersecting the horizontal 
plane of the base ; and the contact generatrix is then obtained by 
letting fall from the centre, s', a radius, s' a', perpendicular to the 
line, a' s' ; and this line, s' a', is the horizontal projection of one of 
the lines of separation of light and shade. The vertical projection 
of this straight line is obtained by squaring over the point of con- 
tact, a', to a, and then drawing tho straight line, s a. The other 
line, s b, of the separation of light and shade, is similarly obtained 
by means of tho tangent, s' b'. Its vertical projection is, however, 
not apparent in fig. 3". 

314. Second: The shadow cast by the cone upon the vortical 
piano is limited, on the one hand, by tho lino of separation k[' light 
and shade, and, on tho other, by the portion of the illumined base 
comprised between tho two separation lines. Now, the straight 
line, so, casts a shadow, represented by the straight lino, s 1 n'\ as 

indicated in the diagram ; and the base, a' i:' o' B', oasts :i shadow, 

represented hy tho elliptic earn, f e d'ef, which is determined by 
points, as in tho case considered in reference I" fig. 6, Plate X\\ I. 

315. Third: The shadow oast liy tho lower side, (.' it. of the 

rectangular prism, p, upon the convex Burfaoe of tho cone, is found 
in accordance with tho principle already enunciated — that when a 
Btraight lino is parallel to a piano >.<( projection, it casta a shadow 



104 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



upon this plane, which is represented by a straight line, equal and 
parallel to itself. It follows, then, that if we cut the cone by a plane, 
M n, parallel to its base, the shadow cast by the straight line, g h, 
upon this plane, will be found by drawing from the point, i, of the 
base, situated upon the axis of the cone, and projected horizontally 
in the point, s', a luminous ray, which meets this plane, M n, in 
the point, i, projected horizontally in the point, i', upon the projec- 
tion of the same ray. If, next, we make i' i 2 equal to s' j', 
and through i 2 draw the straight line, G a h 2 , this last will be the 
shadow cast by the edge, g h, of the prism, upon the plane, m n. 
This plane, however, cuts the cone in- a circle, the diameter, in n, 
of which is comprised between the extreme generatrices, whilst the 
circle is projected horizontally in u' il n'. The intersection of 
the straight line, G 2 H 2 , with the circle, gives the two points, i 2 and 
t 3 , which being projected vertically in i, i", upon the straight line, 
M n, constitute two points in the outline of the shadow cast upon 
the cone. 

Continuing the operations in this manner, and taking any other 
intersecting plane parallel to M n, any number of points may be 
obtained. It will be observed that these planes are taken at a 
convenient height, when the projections of the straight line, g h, 
cut the corresponding circles ; and with regard to this, much use- 
less labour may be avoided, by at first determining the limiting 
points of the curve. Thus, in the example before us, we get the 
summit, g, of the curve, by making i J, fig. 3°, equal to j' s', fig. 3. 
Through the point, j, we then draw T a luminous ray, and the point, 
g", at which it meets the extreme generatrix, a s, of the cone, is 
squared over to the generatrix, s t, by means of the horizontal,^" g, 
whence g is the summit of the curve. We next obtain the extreme 
points, h, h', of the same shadow, by making s' g", fig. 3, equal to 
s' g', and squaring over g" to g 3 , in fig. 3". Through g 3 draw the 
straight line, g 8 hi, parallel to the luminous ray, as situate in a 
vertical plane, passing through it ; the ray, as we have already seen, 
making, in this plane, an angle of 35° 16' with the base line. The 
point, K, at which this ray meets the extreme generatrix, s A, de- 
termines the plane, h' h, which is intersected by the luminous rays, 
making angles of 45°, and drawn through the points, i and g, in the 
points, h, h', the limits of the curve sought. 

The shadow cast by the prism, p, upon the vertical planes, pre- 
sents no peculiarity apart from the principles already fully explained. 

SHADOW OF AN INVERTED CONE. 

316. When the cone, instead of resting upon its .base, has its 
apex downwards, as is the case with the one represented in figs. 4 
and 4", the rays of light illumine a less portion of its surface ; and 
the lines of separation of light and shade are determined by draw- 
ing from the apex, s s', lines at an angle of 45°, which are prolonged 
towards the light, until they intersect the prolongation of the plane 
of the base, a b. 

It will be observed, that the points of intersection, s, s', lie to 
the left, instead of to the right of the cone. Through the point, 
s', the horizontal projection of the point, s, draw a couple of lines, 
s* a', s' b', tangential to the circumference, a' b' d', of the base. 
The radii, s' a' and s' b', drawn to the points of contact, represent 
the horizontal projection of the two lines of separation of light and 
£hade, and show that the illumined portion of the cone, consisting 



of the surface, V g" a' s', is smaller than the portion, V d' a s', in 
the shade. In the case of the cone with its apex uppermost, the 
contrary would be observed, the portion in the shade being there 
less than that in the light ; and the method given of determining 
the proportion of shadow of the inverted cone is suggested by the 
consideration, that this proportion must be exactly the reverse of 
that for the cone with its apex uppermost. 

The first-nientioned line, s' a', is the only one apparent in the 
vertical projection, fig. 4°. It is found by squaring over the point, 
a', to a, and joining this last to the apex, s. As the cone is trun- 
cated by the plane, D e, the line of separation obviously terminates 
at the point, c, of its intersection with this plane. 

317. The cone, thus inverted, is surmounted, moreover, by a 
square plinth, the sides of which, F g' and c' h', cast shadows upon 
its convex surface. The side, f g', as projected vertically in g', fig. 
4", is perpendicular to the vertical plane, and consequently its cast 
shadow is a straight line, making an angle of 45°, as g /. The 
extreme limit,/, is determined by proceeding as in previous exam- 
ples ; that is to say, by making i g 3 , in fig. 4", equal to s' g', in fig. 
4, and then drawing through the point, g 3 , the straight line, g 3 h", 
parallel to the ray of light, as in the diagonal plane, that is, at an 
angle of 35° 16' to the horizon; next draw the horizontal line, h" h, 
and it will be intersected by the straight line, g /, in the point,/, 
which is consequently the shadow cast by the comer, g. 

The following method, although more complicated, is of more 
universal application : — Draw the vertical projection of the outline 
of the body which receives the shadow, as sectioned by the verti- 
cal plane, in which the ray of light lies, which passes through the 
point w T hose shadow is sought; draw the same ray of light as 
projected in the vertical plane, and its intersection with the projec- 
tion of the sectional outline will be the projection of the shadow 
of the point. 

Thus, in the present instance, as the plane of the ray, g' s', 
passes through the apex of the cone, the latter will present a trian- 
gular section, the vertical projection of which may be obtained by 
squaring over the point, g 2 , fig. 4, to the base line, a b, fig. 4° ; 
then, if a straight line is drawn from the vertical projection of this 
point to the apex, s, it will represent the projection of the section 
of the cone, and it will be intersected by the luminous ray, g/, in 
the point,/, which is the point sought. 

If the plane passing through the point does not likewise pass 
through the axis of the cone, the section will be a parabola, which 
may be drawn according to methods already discussed. If the 
objest is a sphere instead of a cone, the section will be a circle, 
whether the plane passes through the centre or not, and the verti- 
cal projection will, in all cases, be an ellipse. As a good idea of 
the whereabouts of the point sought may always be formed on 
inspection, it will generally be sufficient to find one or two points 
in the parabola or ellipse, near the supposed position, when a suffi- 
cient length of the curve may be drawn to give the intersection of 
the luminous ray, as g/. 

As the plinth is square, the summit, g, of the curved outline, 
corresponding to the shadow of the front edge, g h, is obtained 
directly by the intersection in g" of the fine, g/, with the extreme 
generatrix, a s, the horizontal line, g" g, being drawn through this 
point. Any other point in the curve, as i", is afterwards found 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



10! 



by means of the sectional plane, m n ; g 2 h, fig. 4, is the shadow of 
the edge, g h, in that plane, and it cuts the circle representing the 
section of the cone in the same plane in the point, i", which is ob- 
viously a point in the outline of the shadow. 

SHADOW CAST UPON THE INTERIOR OF A HOLLOW CONE. 

318. Fig. 5 represents a plan of a hollow truncated cone, and 
fig. 5" is a vertical section through the axis of the object. It is 
required to determine the horizontal projection of the shadow cast 
upon the internal surface of the cone by the portion of the edge, 
a' b c, and the vertical projection of the shadow cast by the sec- 
tional edge, D s, and by the small circular portion, a' d', projected 
vertically in a d. 

It is to be observed, in the first place, that the straight line, d s, 
which is a generatrix of the cone, casts a shadow upon the latter, 
in the form of a straight line, for the plane parallel to the ray of 
light, and passing through this line, d s, must cut the cone in a 
generatrix ; we therefore draw through the point, d', the ray of 
light, d' d', making an angle of 45° with the base line, and from 
the centre, s', let fall the perpendicular, s' e', this straight line 
representing the horizontal projection of the intersection of the cone 
by the plane passing through the line, d' s', and at the same time 
parallel to the ray of light. By squaring over the point, e', to e, 
fig. 5", and joining e s, we have the vertical projection of this line 
of intersection, and consequently the shadow cast by the line, d s. 
The diagonal ray of light, D d, drawn through the point, d, deter- 
mines the limit, d, of the shadow. The horizontal projection of the 
extreme points, a' and c, of the curved outline of the shadow, is 
also obtained by means of the tangents, s' a' and s' c, drawn from 
the point, s, in which the ray of light passing through the apex 
intersects the plane of the base of the cone. The determination 
of the central or symmetrical point, b', of the same curve, is derived 
from the straight line, d b, drawn from the point, d, parallel to the 
ray of light, s R°, as in the diagonal plane, that is, as at s r 5 ; the 
point, b, in which this straight line meets the generatrix directly 
opposite to that passing through the point, d, is projected horizon- 
tally in the point, b', upon the prolongation of the diagonal ray of 
light, s' s'. 

319. The operation for finding any intermediate point in the 
curve, is based on principles already explained ; namely, that when 
a line or a surface is parallel to a plane, the shadow cast is also 
a line or a surface equal and parallel to tho first. If, then, wo 
draw a place, M n, parallel to the base, d f, of tho cone, the 
shadow cast by this base upon the plane, m n, will be a circlo ; it 
will consequently bo sufficient to draw through the centre, o, tig. 
5', a ray, o a, which will meet tho plane, m n, in a, which must 
bo squared over to a', on tho horizontal projection of tho same 
ray. Next, with tho point, «', for a centre, and with a radius 
equal to d o, describe a circlo, n' i J ; (his will represent the entire 
shadow that would bo cast by the base, u f, of the cone upon tho 
piano, m n ; this plane, however, cuts tho cone in tho circle, of 
which ni n is the diameter ami vertical projection, whilst a' a' j n' 
is the horizontal projection; this circle is cut by the former in tho 
points, H' and J, which are consequently two points in the outline 
of the shadow in fig. 5, and the one of these which is seen in tho 
vertical projection is squared over to h, upon the lino, ivi n. 



APPLICATIONS. 

320. In this plate, as well as in Plate XXVI., we have given 
shaded and finished representations of several objects, which serve 
as applications of the several principles we have just pointed out, 
whether referring to shadows proper, or cast, or to graduated shad- 
ing. Thus, fig. & represents the interior of a steam-engine cylinder 
with piston and rod. In this example, regard has been had to the 
general principle, that shadows are the stronger the brighter the 
surfaces on which they fall would be, if illumined — that is, when 
such surfaces are perpendicular to the rays of light, any shadow 
cast upon them will be most intense ; the shade is consequently 
made deepest about the generatrix, corresponding to g h, in fig. 1*, 
and situate in the vertical plane of the rays of light passing through 
the axis of the cylinder : to the right and left of this line, the shade 
is softened off. 

321. In the graduation of the shade, regard has also been had 
to the effects of the reflected light, which prevents a surface in the 
shade from being quite black. In a hollow cylinder, for the por- 
tion in the shade, it is the generatrix, f f 2 , fig. 1°, which should 
receive the shade of least intensity, as it receives the reflected 
rays of light more directly. It will be recollected that the point, 
f', is obtained by means of the radius, t f', perpendicular to the 
ray of light. 

Fig. [§ represents a portion of a common moulding, and shows 
how the distinction made between the shadow proper, and the cast 
shadow, tends to bring out and show the form of the object. 

Fig. © is an arcliitectural fragment from the Doric order, given 
as an application of shadows cast upon cones, as well as those cast 
by cones upon a vertical plane. 

This example also shows how necessary it is, in producing an 
effective representation, to make a difference in the intensity of 
shadows cast upon planes parallel to the plane of projection, and at 
different distances from the eye ; and also to give gradations to 
such shadows when cast upon rounded surfaces. 

Fig. [B) is a combination of a cylinder with a couple of cones, 
with their apices in opposite directions, showing how differently the 
effects of light and shade have to be rendered upon each. 

There is less shadow upon the upper cone than upon the cylin- 
der, whilst there is more upon the lower cone ; the reasons of these 
differences have already been explained in reference to figs. 3* 
and 4". 

Fig. H represents an inverted and truncated cone, showing the 
maimer of shading tho same, and tho form of the shadow cast by 
Hie square tablet above ; and fig. [? is a view of a hollow cone, sec- 
tioned across the axis, presenting a further variety of combinations. 



TUSCAN ORDER. 

l'l.ATK XX IX. 

Ml WHiW OF THE TORUS. 

322. In geometry, the torus is a solid, generated by a circle, re- 
volving about an axis, continuing Constantly in the plane o( this 
axis, in such a manner, that all sections made by planes passing 
through thi' axis are equal circles, and all sections by planes porpen- 
dii ulai to the axi . will also he circles, but of variable dianieleis. 



106 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



We have seen, that in architecture, the torus is one of the essen- 
tial parts of the base, and of the capital of the column, of each 
order. It will, therefore, be useful to give the methods of deter- 
mining the shadows upon it, or cast by it, in the quickest and most 
accurate manner. 

Figs. 1 and 1* represent the two projections of a torus, a, sup- 
posed to be generated by the semicircle, afc, revolving about the 
vertical axis, o r; namely, that of the column. 

323. We propose to determine the shadow proper of this torus, 
or the line of separation of light and shade upon its external sur- 
face. It will be convenient, in the first place, to seek the principal 
points, which, for the most part, present little difficulty. Thus, by 
drawing, parallel to the ray of light, R o', a couple of tangents to 
the semicircles, afc, which limit the contour of the torus in the 
vertical projection, we at once obtain the two extreme points, b, d, 
of the curved line of separation. These points are more exactly 
defined by letting fall perpendiculars from the centres, o, o', of the 
semicircles, upon the tangents. Then, by drawing through the 
point, b, the horizontal, b e, the middle point, e, of the curve will be 
obtained upon the vertical fine, o p. 

To obtain the curve in the horizontal projection, square over the 
points, b, e, d, of fig. 1°, to b', d, a", fig. 1, which will lie in a circle, 
having b e or o d for radius. An additional point, g', is obtained 
by drawing the diagonal, o' g', perpendicular to the ray, r' o' ; this 
radius cuts the outer circumference, /' h f, of the torus, in the point, 
g'. This circumference,/' h /', is projected vertically in the hori- 
zontal line,//, passing through the centres, o, o , of the semicircles, 
and the point, g', is squared over to g, in fig. I s . 

To find the point, i, which seems to be the lowest in the curve, 
and which is situated in the vertical plane passing through the 
luminous ray, i o , of the horizontal projection, fig. 1 — 2, we pro- 
ceed as follows : — Suppose the vertical plane, i o', to be turned 
about the axis, o p, so as to coincide with the plane of projection, 
when the section of the torus by the plane, i' o', being obviously a 
semicircle, will coincide with the semicircle, afc, draw a tangent, 
k r, to the last, parallel to the ray of light, as in the vertical plane, 
i' o' — that is, at an angle of 35° 16', as has been already explained 
— the point of contact, ?, is the one sought. But it has to be 
transferred to the original position of the vertical plane ; and for 
this purpose it is squared over to i\ in the horizontal projection. 
Then o' i is made equal to o' i 3 , and the point, i', again squared 
over to i, in the horizontal, i 3 i, drawn through P. 

It is generally sufficient to find five principal points, as b, i, e, g, 
and d, in the curved line of separation of light and shade ; but if, 
because of the large scale of the drawing, it is wished to obtain 
intermediate points, this may be done by drawing planes passing 
through the axis ; such, for instance, as o' b', which cuts the torus 
in a circle of the same radius as the generating circle. We then 
proceed to find the point of contact of the ray of light, according 
to the method indicated in figs. 5 and 5°, Plate XXYT. ; that is 
to say, we seek the projection of the luminous ray upon this plane, 
o' b'. For this purpose, we let fall upon this plane a perpendicu- 
lar, r' i', from any point taken upon the luminous ray, r' o', and 
we obtain a face view of this ray, as projected upon the plane, o' b', 
by supposing the latter to be turned about the axis, o', until it 
coincides with /' o', r* then coinciding with r'. Then, as the 



height, r" r, of the point, r', above the horizontal plane, is equal to 
that of the point, r, the line joining r o will be the face view of 
the projection of the ray in the plane, o b'. In turning round the 
plane, o' b', the section of the torus will become coincident with the 
semicircle, af c, as in a previous operation. If, therefore, we draw 
a straight line, m n, tangential to this semicircle, and parallel to the 
ray, r o>, the point of contact, n, will be the point of separation of 
light and shade, as in the plane, o' b'. Finally, we square n over 
to n', fig. 1 ; make o* n* equal to o' n', by describing an arc with 
the centre, o', and radius, o' n', and cutting the line, o' b', in n'. 
This point, ?i 3 , we again square over to n 2 , upon the horizontal, n n\ 
in fig. 1°, and n" is the point sought. Or we might have drawn the 
vertical projection of the section of the torus by the plane o' b', 
which would have been an ellipse, similar to that in fig. 5*, Plate 
XXVI. ; and we might have proceeded, as shown in reference to 
that figure, the result being the same in both cases. 

If the circular arc be prolonged to beyond the radius, o' g', and 
upon it, g I be made equal to- g' n', another point, T, will be ob- 
tained, symmetrical with ti s , with reference to the radius, o' g , 
which is at an angle of 45° to the base line, and perpendicular to 
the luminous ray. This point, I', is to be squared over to I, in the 
vertical projection, and upon the horizontal, p I, drawn at a distance, 
q p, above the centre line, / /, equal to the distance, q s, of the 
horizontal passing through the point, 7i a , below it 

324. When the shadow proper of a torus is known, it is very 
easy to determine the shadow which it will cast upon the horizontal 
plane — the plinth or pedestal below it, for instance — by drawing, 
through any points in the line of separation of light and shade, a 
number of lines parallel to the luminous ray, and then finding the 
points at which these lines intersect the horizontal plane. Thus, 
in figs. 2 and 2°, a portion of the torus, a, casts a shadow upon the 
horizontal plane, b c, the outline of which is a curve ; but the por- 
tion, a" V c', of this curve is all that is visible. 

Any point, b, b', in this curve is determined by the meeting of the 
ray of light drawn from the point, 1 1', with the plane, b c. 

The half of the line of separation of light and shade upon the 
posterior portion of the torus, fig. 1", which is not seen in the front 
elevation, is similar to the anterior half; it is indicated in dotted 
lines, the portion, o b, being similar to the front portion, e d, whilst 
o d is similar to e b. 

325. When the torus is surmounted by a cylindrical fillet, the 
line of separation of light and shade upon the latter will cast a 
shadow upon the surface of the torus. Thus, in figs. 2 and 2°, this 
will be the case with the fillet, d, the line of separation of light and 
shade of which is / h. This line, being vertical, casts a shadow, 
which is a straight line,/' i', parallel to the luminous ray, and de- 
termined by drawing through the point,/, a luminous ray,/t, meet- 
ing the horizontal plane, a a, in i, which point, i, is squared over to 
the horizontal projection. It remains to determine the shadow cast 
bv the circular portion,/'^'', which is in the shade: this may be 
done according to the general method explained in reference to 
figs. 3, 4, and 5, of Plate XXYL, and which we shall have occasion 
to repeat on figs. 3 and 3" of the present plate. This method is 
also applicable for the determination of the shadow, nj, n'j', cast 
bv the cylinder or shaft, e, upon the annular gorge, which unites 
this cvlinder with the fillet, d. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



107 



SHADOW CAST BY A STRAIGHT LINE UPON A TORUS OR 
QUARTER-ROUND. 

326. Fig. 3 represents the horizontal projection, as seen from 
below, of a fragment of a Tuscan capital, of which fig. 3° is the 
vertical projection, the object of these figures being to show the 
form of the shadow cast by the larmier, f, which is a square prism, 
upon the quarter-round, a, which is annular. 

We yet again recall the general principle, that when a straight 
line is parallel to a plane, its shadow upon this plane is a straight 
line parallel to itself. For the rest, it will be sufficient to compare 
the operations indicated with those of figs. 3 and 3°, Plate XXVLII., 
to see that they are precisely the same : thus, on the one hand, we 
have the diagonal, g/, for .the shadow cast upon the quarter-round, 
where it is limited by the curve, b el, the line of separation of light 
and shade upon this ; and, on the other hand, we have the curve, 
i" g i', likewise limited by the same curve, for the shadow cast by 
the edge, g h, of the larmier upon the quarter-round. 

Figs. 3 and 3" complete what refers to the shadow of the capital 
of a column ; they show the operations necessary to determine the 
shadow cast by the line of separation of light and shade of the 
quarter-round upon a cylinder, as well as that cast on the same 
cylinder by a portion of the larmier. The operation, in fact, simply 
consists in drawing the luminous rays through various points, i" e, 
in a portion of the line of separation of light and shade upon the 
quarter-round, finding their intersection with the cylindrical surface 
of the shaft, e, by means of the horizontal projection. There is 
no peculiarity or difficulty in this procedure, and the whole being 
fully indicated upon the diagrams, we need not pause to detail it 
further. 

To render the diagrams just discussed more generally applicable 
and intelligible, we have not given to the different parts the precise 
proportions prescribed by this or that architectural order ; such pro- 
portions, however, will be found in fig. A, which represents the 
model fully shaded and finished, being the entablature and column 
of the Tuscan order. A double object is intended to be gained by 
this beautiful example of drawing ; namely, to show the application 
of the principles laid down regarding shadows, and the distinctness 
and niceties to be observed in the various intensities of the washes, 
and in the general shading. 

shadows of surfaces of revolution. 

327. It will be recollected, that a solid or surface of revolution 
is that which may be said to be generated by a straight or curved 
line, caused to turn about a given fixed axis, and maintaining a uni- 
form distance therefrom ; thus, tho cylinder, the cone, the sphero, 
the torus, are all surfaces of revolution; so, also, is the surface 
generated by the curve, a b c, revolving about the axis, a b, figs. 4 
and 4". It follows, from the above definition, that every section 
made perpendicularly to the axis will be a circle, and all such sec- 
tions will be parallel. Every section made by a piano passing 
through the axis will give an outline equal to flic generating curve, 
and which may be termed a meridian. 

328. The shadow of a surface of revolution may be determined 
in two different ways : by drawing sectional planes perpendicular 

to the axis, anil then COBBidering the sections made by these 
planes an liases of so many righl cones; or by imagining a series 



of planes passing through the axis, and then projecting the ray of 
light upon these planes, so as to draw lines tangential to the dif- 
ferent parts of the outline, and parallel to the projections of the 
ray of light, the points of contact of which will be points in the 
line of separation of light and shade sought. This latter method 
having been applied in the preceding figs. 1 and 1*, Plate XXIX., 
and figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXVIII., we deem it more useful, in the 
present instance, to explain the operations called for in the first 
method. 

Take, then, any horizontal plane, b d, figs. 4 and 4*, cutting the 
surface of revolution in a circle, the radius of which is b e, and the 
horizontal projection, V e' d\ through the points, b and d, draw a 
couple of tangents to the generating curve which forms the outline 
of the surface of revolution. These tangents will cut each other 
in the point, s, upon the axis, tliis point being the apex of an im- 
aginary cone, s b d; through this apex draw a luminous ray, s f 
and a' b r , meeting the horizontal plane of the section, b df,'mf,f; 
from this latter point, the horizontal projection, draw two straight 
lines,/' g' and/' V, tangents to the circle, b' c' d! ; then the points 
of contact, g' and i', will be the two points of the line of separa- 
tion of light and shade intersected by the plane, b d, and they are 
therefore squared over to the vertical projection, fig. 4°, r, only 
being there visible. 

It is in a similar manner that the points, h and /', are deter- 
mined, these points being situated in planes, c d and e f, parallel 
to the first. It is to be observed, however, that, in these two last 
cases, the imaginary cones will be inverted, and the luminous ray 
must consequently be drawn to the left instead of to the right, as 
has already been explained in reference to figs. 3" and 4°, Plate 
XXVIII. 

329. When the tangents to the generating curve are vertical, as 
is the case with the sectional planes, m n and a I, the poiuts, m and 
n, of the line of separation of light and shade, are determined by 
lines, inclined at an angle of 45°, and tangential to the circular sec- 
tions in the horizontal projection, because these circular sections are 
the bases of imaginary cylinders and not cones. 

When a sufficient number of points have been obtained in this 
manner, as in fig. -4", a curved line is drawn through them all, which 
will give the visible portion, in i n lij e, of the line of separation 
of light and shade upon the surface of revolution. This method is 
general, and may be applied to surfaces of revolution of any outline 
whatever. 

As it is well to determine directly the lowest point, /.-, of this and 
similar curves, it may be done in the same manner as for the torus' 
figs. 1 and 1°, namely, by drawing the ray of light. B is, at the same 
inclination to the base line, as it is in the diagonal and vertical 
plane, and then drawing parallel to it a tangent to (ho outline of 
the surface of revolution, the projection lor the moment being 
supposed to be ill a plane parallel to the ray of light, k' a': th ■ 

distance of the point of contact, fc, from the axis, being then mea- 
sured upon the horizontal projection, ft' a', o[' the luminous ray 
gives the point, A', which is finally squared over to A, in the hori- 
zontal line in the vertical projection passing through the same point 
of contact. 

A portion of this curve, namely, the lower part, f A j. casts a 
shadow upon the cylindrical fillet, co; to determine this riudw 



108 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



it will, in the first place, be necessary to delineate the horizontal 
projection of the curve, e kj, and then to draw luminous rays 
through one or two points in the latter, to meet the circle, c' o', 
the horizontal projection of the fillet. The points in which the 
luminous rays intersect the circle, are then to be squared over to 
the vertical projection of the same rays, whence is derived the 
curve, c p q. The various operation lines are not indicated on the 
figures, to avoid confusion, but the proceeding will be easily com- 
prehended. 

330. Fig. 4° represents the vertical projection of a baluster, such 
as is often seen in balconies of stone or marble, and sometimes 
also in machinery, serving as an isolated standard, or as a portion 
of the framing. Below the fillet, c o, is an annular gorge, upon the 
surface of which the base of the fillet casts a shadow. It is easy 
to see that this shadow is obtained in precisely the same manner 
as those occurring in figs. 3 and 3", Plate XXVIII., as well as in 
subsequent diagrams. 

Figs. [B and © represent the sbaded models of two descriptions 
of baluster, consisting of surfaces of revolution. We recommend 
the student to draw them upon a large scale, and to determine the 
outline of the shadows in rigorous accordance with the principles 
which we have laid down. Such balusters are generally made of 
stone, and are susceptible of various sizes and proportions. We 
have, however, supposed them to be drawn to a scale of one-tenth 
their actual size. 

Many forms and combinations, of which we have said nothing, 
will be met with in actual practice ; but our labours would be 
interminable were we to give them all. Our exemplifications involve 
all the principles that are needed, and each case will suggest the 
modification of operations applicable to it. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

PUMPS. 

331. There are three kinds of pumps. 

I. Lifting pumps, in which the piston or bucket lifts the water, 
first drawing it up by suction. We engrave one of this kind in 
Plate XXXVD. 

II. Forcing pumps, in which the piston presses or forces the 
water to any distance. The feed pumps of steam-engines are of 
this class, and one is represented in Plate XXXIX. 

in. Lifting and forcing pumps, in which both the above actions 
are eombined. 

HYDROSTATIC PRINCIPLES. 

332. Whatever be the height at which a pump delivers its water 
— whatever be the calibre or inclination of the suction or delivery 
pipe — the piston has always to support a weight equal to a column 
of water, the base of which is equal to the area of the piston, and 
the height is equal to the difference of level of the water below, 
from which the pump draws its supply, and the point of delivery 
above. 

Thus, putting H to represent the difference in the level, D for 



62-5 



x H x 1-08; 



the diameter of the piston, and P for the weight or pressure on the 
piston — 

P * D ' H 

— 4 

To express this pressure in pounds, it must be multiplied by 
62-5, that being the weight in pounds of a cubic foot of water ; the 
formula then becomes — 

* D2 H , 

P = 62-5 — : lbs., 

4 ' 

the measurement being expressed in feet. 

333. Independently of this load, which corresponds to the useful 
effect of the machine, the power employed in elevating the piston 
has other passive resistances to overcome, namely — 

1st. The friction of the piston against the sides of the pump. 

2d. The friction of the water itself in the pipes. 

3d. The retardation of the water in its passage to the pump by 
the suction valve. 

4th. The weight of this valve. 

These resistances can only be determined approximately. Still 
it follows, from the experiments of M. d'Aubisson, that the load to 
be overcome in raising the piston is equal to 
, xD' 
4 
or, more simply, 

52-5 D 3 H. 
It is sufficient to add to this the weight of the piston and rod. 

The power exerted in depressing the piston, being assisted by 
the weight of itself and the rod, is always less than that required 
to raise it. 

334. In ordinary pumps, the volume of water delivered for each 
stroke of the piston, instead of being given by the formula, 

rtD a 

x I, or - 785 D 3 Z, 

where Z is the length of stroke, is determined by an expression 
which varies between 

•6 D 5 1 and -7 D 2 Z. 
The velocity of the piston generally ranges between a minimum of 
50 feet and a maximum of 80 feet per minute. The diameter of 
the suction and discharge pipes is generally equal to j- or £ of that 
of the body of the pump. 

It may be remarked, that the height to which liquids rise in vacuo, 
by the pressure of the atmosphere, is in the inverse ratio of their 
specific gravities. Thus this pressure, which is equal to 15 lbs. to 
the square inch, makes water rise to 33 feet, whilst mercury only 
rises to 30 inches, its specific gravity being 13-59 times that of 
water. If the atmosphere presses on a liquid lighter than water, it 
will cause it to rise higher in vacuo than 33 feet, in proportion to 
the difference of the specific gravity. In practice, more than 29 or 
30 feet cannot be calculated on for the lift of the pump, because 
of the difficulty of obtaining a perfect vacuum. 

FORCING PUMPS. 

335. What has been here said of lifting pumps, applies as well 
to forcing pumps. The resistance, however, to be overcome, is 
somewhat greater in the latter case — for instance, at the moment 
of opening the discharge valve : and in general this occurs with 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



109 



ail valves having a great body of water above them, and with then- 
upper surface greater than the area of the orifice above. 

LIFTING AND FORCING PUMPS. 

336. A pump of this description ordinarily consists of a cylinder 
with a short suction pipe, a discharge pipe, a solid piston, termed a 
plunger, and suction and discharge valves. 

Two such pumps are frequently coupled together, in which case 
a single suction and discharge pipe serves for both. 

337. The power necessary to work one or more pumps is ex- 
pressed by 52-5 D'H»; or, taking into account the force necessary 
to work the piston by itself, 55 '7 D 2 H v ; v signifying the velocity 
in feet per minute. 

This velocity is obviously obtained by multiplying the number 
of strokes per minute by the length of stroke ; thus — • 

v = 2n I, 
n being the number of back-and-forward movements per minute ; 
consequently, the power required is equal to 

55-7 D 2 H x 2?i Z = m-4 FHjiI; 
this product representing pounds raised one foot high per minute, 
the measurements being in feet. 

With these premises, we can solve such problems as the fol- 
lowing : — 

First : What force, F, is required to work a pump, having a 
piston 6 inches in diameter, a stroke of 18 inches, and a velocity of 
15 double-strokes per minute; the whole height between the well 
and the point of delivery being 70 feet ? 

The velocity v = 2n I = 30 x l£ — 45 feet. Then F == 55-7 
D 2 x H x v = 55-7 X "25 x 74 x 45 = 46,997 lbs. raised one 
foot high per minute. 

To express this in horses power, we must simply divide it by 

33,000 ; therefore, 

46,997 
F = »„ - . = 1| horses power, nearly. 

Second : What quantity will the same pump raise in ten hours ? 
Assuming, according to the formula (333), the effective volume, 
V = -6 D 2 I, or V = -6 x -25 x 1-5 = -225 cubic feet per 
stroke ; 
and the volume per minute, 

•225 x 15 = 3-375 cubic feet ; 
and per hour, 

3-375 x 60 = 202-5 cubic feet. 
The quantity of water raised in ten hours will consequently be 
202-5 X 10 = 2,025 cubic feet. 
Third: What diameter should be given to the piston of a pump 
which raises 202-5 cubic feet of water per hour, the velocity being 
45 feet per minute, the length of stroke 18 inches, and the height 
to which the water is raised 75 feet ? 

The formula above, relative to the effective discharge per stroke, 
V = -6 D 2 x I, 
by transposition, becomes 

V 
•6 x I. 

Now, the volume, 202-5 cubic feet, discharged per hour, is, per 
minute, 



D 2 = 



202-5 

— g-- =a 3-375 cubic feet. 



This last again reduces itself to 



2 x 1-5 x 3375 



45 



— = -225 cubic feet per stroke ; 



D 2 — 


•225 


V -6 x I, 


' -225 





consequently, 



Whence, 



THE HYDROSTATIC PRESS. 

338. This powerful machine is an application of the lifting and 
forcing pump. It consists of a bulky piston, or plunger, termed a 
ram, working in a cylinder to correspond, and communicating, by a 
pipe of small bore, with a small but very strong forcing pump. 
To the top of the large piston is fixed a table or platform, which 
compresses or crushes what is submitted to the action of the 
machine. 

The pressure exerted upon the water by the smaller piston, is, 
by means of the fluid contained in the pipe, transmitted to the base 
of the ram ; and as, according to the well-known hydrostatic law, 
the pressure is equal on all points, the total force acting on each 
piston will be in proportion to their area ; so that if, for example, 
the diameters of the pistons are to each other as 1 to 5, the pres- 
sure on the larger one, the ram, will be 25 times as great as that 
exerted by the pump-piston. Suppose a man can apply a force 
equal to 60 lbs. to the end of a lever 3 feet long, and that the point 
of connection with the piston-rod is only \\ inch from the fulcrum, 
the leverage of the power will be 24 times as great as that of the 
resistance, and the pressure upon the ram will consequently be 
24 x 25 x 60 = 36,000 lbs., an effort equal to that of 600 men 
acting at once. 

In the hydrostatic press, we have, consequently, to consider two 
mechanical advantages — that of the simple machine, the lever, and 
that of the ram : these advantages are, however, necessarily com- 
pensated for by the diminution in the velocity of the ram. 

On these principles, enormously powerful presses and lifting- 
machines have been constructed. The one capable of lifting 18,000 
tons, at the Menai Tubular Bridge, is an unparalleled example. 

HYDROSTATICAL CALCULATIONS AND DATA — DISCHARGE OF 
WATER THROUGH DIFFERENT ORIFICES. 

339. The discharge of a volume of water, in a given time, varies 
according to the velocity of the water, and depends upon the area 
and form of the discharge orifice. 

Surface Velocity. — The velocity of water at the surface of a water- 
course or river, of which it is wished to ascertain the discharge, is 

obtained by means of a Boat, which is thrown into the part where 

the current is strongest. As the wind, if there is any, affects the 
result, very considerably, the float must project above the surface as 
little as possible. A distance of as great a length as convenient is 
measured on die part of the stream w here the current is most regu< 
lar, and the time occupied by the ftoal in passing thai distance is 
noted by a seconds watch. Tho space passed through is then divided 

by the time expressed in seconds, and the quotient will be the sur 
lace \ elocily per second. 



110 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



It is usual to try several floats in different parts of the current. 

Example. — Suppose the space passed through by each float is 

150 feet in 35 seconds, what is the surface velocity ? 

150 
V = —z=- = 4-28 feet per second. 
3o 

If the velocity is not uniform throughout the length of the canal, 
the velocity at any point may be obtained by means of a small 
paddle-wheel, the floats of which just dip into the water. The 
number of revolutions per minute of this instrument being multi- 
plied by its mean circumference — that is, the circumference corres- 
ponding to the centre of the immerged part of the float — the pro- 
duct expresses the velocity per minute ; and, by dividing by 60, the 
surface velocity per second is obtained. 

Example. — Suppose that the wheel makes 120 revolutions pel 
minute, and that the mean circumference is equal to H foot, what 
is the surface velocity of the current ? 

— = 3 feet per second. 

60 * 

340. Mean Velocity. — The velocity above obtained is only that 

at the surface ; now, the mean velocity, V, of the whole body of 

water, which is what is necessary to know for the gauging of the 

river or canal, is deduced from the first, by multiplying it by a 

coefficient, which varies in the following proportions : — 



For a surface velo- i 
city equal to j 

The ratio of V to ( 
V is ! 



•5 ft. 



1-5 ft. 



3 ft. 
•81 



5 ft. 
•83 



6-5 ft. 
•85 



8 ft. 



10 ft. 
•87 



11-5 ft 

■88 



13 ft. 
•89 



Example. — What is the mean velocity of a current of which the 
surface velocity is 5 feet per second 1 

It is equal to -83 x 5 = 4-15 feet. 

The mean velocity of water in an open water-course or river of 
uniform cross-section is determined by the following formula : — 

/A H 

V = 56-86 x \ — x -236. 

- v P L 

This formula requires the obtainment of the exact level of the 
surface of the water throughout a certain length, L, the greater the 
Detter; the cross-sectional area, A; the form of the immerged 
perimeter or profile of the bed ; and the height of the fall, H, cor- 
responding to the length, L. 

Example. — What is the mean velocity of the water in a water- 
course of uniform rectangular cross-section, having a width of 35 
feet, a depth of 12 feet, and with a fall of - 8 feet in a distance of 
1400 feet? 

The cross-sectional area, A, 

= 35 x 12 = 420 square feet. 

The immerged profile, P, 

= 35 + (2 X 12) = 59 feet 

Then, 



V = 56-86 



■v^ 



sq. ft. 
~59 



1400 



•236 = 339 



feet per second. 

rhus, according to this formula, it is necessary to extract the 
square root of the product of the quantities placed under the radi- 
cal sign V ; next to multiply this root by the co-efficient 56-86; 



and, finally, to subtract from the product "236 feet. When the 
measurements are in metres this last item is -072. 

COMPARISON OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 

The French litre is equal to a cubic metre, and therefore to 
10-76 cubic feet, or -220 gallon. The gallon is equal to 4-543 
litres or cubic metres, and the cubic foot to -9929 litres or cubic 
metres. 

THE GAUGING OF A WATER-COURSE OF UNIFORM SECTION 
AND FALL. 

341. When we know the mean velocity of a water-course of 
regular section and uniform fall, the discharge per second can be 
obtained by the following formula : — D = A x V , in which D 
signifies the discharge per second; A, the cross-sectional area;_ 
and V, the mean velocity. 

Example. — What is the discharge of a water-course, the cross- 
section of which is 4-2 square metres, and the mean velocity 1-065 
metres 1 
D — 4-2 x 1-065 = 4-473 cubic metres, or 4-473 litres per second. 

VELOCITY AT THE BOTTOM OF WATER-COURSES. 

342. The velocity of water at the bottom of water-courses is 
still less than the mean velocity. 

Putting V to represent the surface velocity, "V tne mean velo- 
city, and V the ground velocity, the relation of the three will be 
expressed by V" = 2 V — V. That is to say, the velocity at the 
bottom of a canal is equal to twice the mean velocity minus the 
surface velocity. 

Example. — The surface velocity of a water-way is found to be 
2 metres, and the mean velocity calculated to be 155 metres, what 
is the ground velocity? 

V* = 2 X 1-55 — 2 = 1-10 metres. 

Too great a velocity at the bottom of a water-course tends to 
loosen and carry away the bed, undermining the sides and causing 
a great deal of damage ; too small a velocity, on the other hand, by 
allowing the matter suspended in the water to settle, is a cause of 
obstruction. 

The following table shows the limit of velocity accoramg to the 
nature of the bed, which cannot be exceeded without danger: — 



Nature of the Bed. 



Limit of the Velocity per Second. 



Soft brown earth 

Soft clay, , 

Sand, 

Gravel, 

Flint stones, 

Shingle, 

Agglomerated stones, soft schist, 

Rock fragments 

Solid rock, 




Feet. 

•25 

•49 

1-00 

2-00 

2-02 

4-00 

5-00 

6-00 

10-00 



343. Prony's measure. — The produce of any source may also 
be measured by damming up the entire width of the stream with 
thin planks pierced with holes of 20 millimetres in diameter, dis- 
posed in a horizontal line. These holes are at first covered, and 
are opened in succession, until the level of the water within them 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



Ill 



is maintained above their centres ; so that when this is effected, 
the discharge is calculated, from the number of orifices which 
require to be open. 

The quantity of water discharged by each orifice of -02 m. in 
diameter, in a board -017 m. thick, and under a column -03 m. 
above the centre, is 20 cubic metres in 24 hours. 

Another method of gauging a stream of water, consists in setting 
up an under or overshot sluice-gate at a similar dam, the discharge 
being calculated according to the following rales in reference to 
this subject :— 



CALCULATION OF THE DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH 
RECTANGULAR ORIFICES OF NARROW EDGES. 

344. As it is of importance, in a majority of circumstances, to be 
able to calculate the discharge of water by sluice-gates, or by the 
vertical discharge-gates of hydraulic motors, so as to know the 
volume, and, consequently, the value of a stream of water, we shall 
commence by giving a table, which enables us to determine this 
discharge in a very simple manner, and places these operations 
within the capacity even of labourers and working mechanics. 



TABLE OF THE DISCHARGES OF WATER THROUGH AN ORIFICE ONE METRE IN WIDTH. 



Height 
of ihe 
orifices 


Volume discharged in litres per second, corresponding to the heights: — 


in centi- 
metres. 


•2 m. 


•3 m. 


'4 m. 


•5 m. 


•6 m. 


•7 m. 


•8 m. 


1-0 m. 


1-2 m. 


1-4 m. 


1-6 m. 


1-8 m. 


2 m. 


25 m. 


3'0 m. 


35 m. 


40 m. 


4 


50 


61 


71 


79 


86 


93 


99 


110 


121 


130 


138 


146 


154 


172 


188 


201 


215 


5 


62 


76 


88 


98 


107 


116 


124 


138 


151 


162 


173 


182 


191 


214 


255 


251 


268 


6 


75 


91 


107 


117 


128 


139 


148 


165 


181 


194 


207 


218 


229 


257 


281 


301 


321 


7 


86 


106 


122 


136 


148 


161 


172 


192 


210 


226 


241 


255 


267 


299 


327 


350 


374 


8 


98 


120 


139 


155 


170 


184 


196 


219 


240 


258 


275 


290 


305 


341 


374 


400 


427 


9 


109 


135 


156 


174 


191 


208 


220 


246 


267 


289 


309 


326 


343 


382 


420 


450 


481 


10 


122 


149 


173 


193 


212 


228 


246 


272 


298 


321 


342 


362 


380 


424 


466 


500 


533 


11 


133 


164 


189 


212 


230 


249 


267 


299 


327 


353 


376 


398 


418 


466 


511 


550 


587 


12 


145 


178 


206 


230 


251 


272 


291 


326 


356 


384 


409 


434 


455 


507 


557 


599 


640 


13 


157 


192 


222 


249 


272 


294 


314 


352 


385 


416 


443 


469 


492 


549 


602 


647 


693 


14 


168 


206 


238 


267 


292 


316 


338 


379 


414 


446 


476 


504 


530 


590 


648 


'697 


745 


15 


179 


220 


255 


285 


312 


338 


361 


405 


443 


477 


509 


539 


566 


631 


693 


747 


799 


16 


190 


234 


271 


304 


330 


360 


385 


432 


472 


509 


542 


574 


603 


673 


739 


797 


852 


17 


201 


248 


287 


322 


350 


382 


414 


456 


501 


-.540 
571 


575 


610 


638 


715 


784 


847 


905 


18 


213 


262 


304 


340 


370 


403 


432 


484 


529 


608 


644 


677 


757 


830 


896 


958 


19 


223 


276 


324 


358 


392 


425 


454 


510 


558 


601 


641 


680 


715 


799 


876 


946 


1011 


20 


235 


291 


337 


377 


414 


447 


485 


536 


586 


627 


675 


715 


753 


841 


922 


996 


1065 


21 


247 


305 


354 


396 


431 


470 


512 


563 


615 


664 


708 


751 


790 


884 


968 


1046 


U18 


22 


259 


320 


370 


417 


451 


492 


538 


590 


645 


695 


742 


787 


828 


926 


1014 


1096 


1171 


23 


271 


334 


388 


434 


472 


515 


550 


616 


674 


726 


776 


823 


865 


968 


1060 


1146 


1224 


24 


•282 


348 


404 


452 


492 


537 


574 


643 


703 


758 


809 


859 


903 


1010 


1106 


1195 


1278 


25 


294 


363 


420 


471 


516 


559 


598 


670 


733 


790 


843 


895 


941 


1052 


1152 


1245 


1331 


26 


306 


377 


437 


490 


538 


681 


626 


697 


762 


822 


877 


930 


978 


1094 


1198 


1295 


1384 


27 


318 


392 


454 


509 


559 


604 


645 


724 


791 


853 


911 


966 


1016 


1136 


1215 


1345 


1137 


28 


329 


406 


471 


527 


573 


626 


679 


740 


820 


885 


944 


1001 


1054 


1172 


1291 


1395 


1491 


29 


340 


421 


487 


546 


602 


649 


693 


777 


850 


916 


978 


1037 


1092 


1220 


1337 


1414 


1544 


30 


353 


434 


504 


564 


624 


670 


718 


804 


880 


948 


1010 


1073 


1129 


1262 


1385 


1494 


1597 


31 


364 


449 


521 


583 


635 


694 


741 


831 


"909 


980 


1046 


1109 


1167 


1305 


1429 


1544 


1650 


32 


376 


463 


538 


602 


655 


715 


765 


857 


939 


1011 


1079 


1144 


1205 


1366 


1475 


1694 


1703 


33 


388 


477 


555 


622 


676 


737 


789 


884 


969 


1043 


1113 


1180 


1212 


1389 


1521 


1644 


1756 


34 


400 


491 


572 


640 


696 


759 


813 


911 


998 


1074 


1147 


1216 


1279 


1431 


1568 


1693 


1810 


35 


415 


507 


588 


659 


717 


782 


837 


938 


1027 


1103 


1180 


1252 


1317 


1 173 


nil i 


1713 


1863 


36 


424 


520 


605 


677 


737 


804 


861 ' 


965 


1057 


1138 


1214 


1288 


1355 


1515 


1660 


1793 


1916 


37 


436 


534 


622 


696 


758 


826 


885 


981 


1086 


1169 


1248 


1324 


1392 


1557 


1706 


1843 


1969 


38 


450 


549 


638 


715 


778 


849 


909 


1018 


1115 


1201 


1283 


1359 


11 30 


1599 


1752 


1893 


2023 


39 


462 


564 


653 


734 


798 


872 


933 


10 15 


1145 


1232 


1315 


1395 


1468 


1641 


1798 


1943 


2076 


40 


484 


577 


671 


753 


819 


894 


957 


1070 


1174 


1266 


1351 


1431 


1506 


1683 


1844 


1992 


2 1 29 


41 




591 


688 


772 


840 


915 


981 


1097 


1203 


1298 


1384 


i 161 


1543 


1725 


1890 


2042 


2182 


42 




606 


705 


790 


860 


936 


1005 


1124 


1233 


1329 


1419 


1503 


15S1 


1768 


1936 


2092 


9236 


43 




620 


722 


8(1!) 


881 


961 


1028 


1151 


1262 


1361 


1 153 


1538 


1618 


1809 


1982 


21 12 


2989 


44 




635 


737 


828 


901 


983 


1053 


1171 


1291 


1393 


I486 


157 1 


1666 


1851 


2029 


2102 


9343 


45 




619 


754 


847 


920 


] 0()5 


1076 


120 1 


1321 


1124 


1520 


1609 


1694 


1894 


2075 


22 1 1 


239 1 


46 




663 


771 


866 


941 


1028 


1100 


1231 


1350 


I 166 


1 55 I 


1636 


1731 


1936 


2121 


229 1 


9449 


47 




677 


787 


885 


961 


1050 


1121 


1 257 


1380 


l 188 


1588 


1681 


1769 


1978 


2167 


23 11 


960 i 


48 




691 


804 


903 


982 


1072 


1 1 IS 


1284 


l 109 


1519 


1622 


17 u; 


1807 


2020 


2213 


2391 


9659 


49 




706 


820 


922 


1002 


1095 


111* 


llil 1 


I 138 


L651 


1656 


1753 


1845 


2062 


2339 


9 1 10 


261 1 


50 


» 


719 


836 


940 


1023 


1115 


1191 


1337 


l 168 


1583 


1690 


1789 


1889 


2104 


2395 


2190 


9669 



112 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



This table has been calculated by means of the following for- 
mula : — 

D= wh x V 2gH x 1000; 

in which 

D represents the volume of water discharged in litres per second ; 

w, the width of the orifice in metres; 

h, the height of the orifice ; 

H, the column, or the height of the pressure, in metres, measured 
from the centre of the orifice to the upper level of the re- 
servoir ; 

g, signifies the action of gravity, being equal to 9-81 metres; 

v, -= V 2 g H, the velocity due to the height H (see 258) ; and, 
finally, 

m is a coefficient, which varies in practice according to the heights, 
■ h and H, from -59 to *66, supposing the contraction of the 
orifice to be complete ; that is to say, it occurs on all four 
sides of the orifice. 

In the first column of the table we give the heights of the orifices 
in centimetres, and in the following columns the results of the dis- 
charge effected, in litres per second, for various heights of the 
column of pressure, from -20 to 4 metres. 

By means of this table we can now determine, by a very simple 
operation, the volume of water discharged through a vertical flood- 
gate, or through a rectangular orifice, of winch the edges are nar- 
row ; the level of the reservoir being above the top of the orifice, 
and the contraction complete. We have, in fact, simply to find the 
number in the table corresponding to the given height of the orifice, 
and to ilie column of water acting at its centre, and then multiply this 
number by the given width. 

Example. — What is the volume of water discharged by the orifice 
of a vertical water-gate, 1*5 metres wide, the height of the orifice 
being -25 m., and the height of the column, from the centre of the 
orifice to the upper level in the reservoir, 2 -5 m., and the contrac- 
tion being complete ; 

In the table, on a line with the height, 25 centimetres, and in 
the column corresponding to 2 - 5 in., will be found the number 
1052. 

We have, therefore, 

1*5 X 1052 = 1578 litres for the actual discharge per second. 

It will be equally easy to estimate very approximately the dis- 
charge of water, corresponding to data, which do not happen to be 
in the table. 

First Example. — What is the volume of water discharged by a 
vertical sluice-gate, *8 m. in width, the height of the orifice being 
16 centim., and the column upon the centre 2*75 m. ? 

This height of column, 2.75 m., is not in the table, but it lies 
between that corresponding to 2 - 5 m. and 3 m. ; consequently, the 
discharge for the height of orifice, 16 c, will be comprised between 
the numbers 673 and 739, and it will be about 706 ; therefore the 
discharge will be 706 x -8 = 664-8 litres per second. 

Second Example. — Suppose the height of the orifice to be 
16-5 c, instead of 16, the other data remaining the same. As 
this height is comprised between 16 and 17 centimetres, the dis- 
charge effected will evidently be between the numbers 673 and 
715, corresponding to a column of 2-5 in., and between the num- 



bers 839 and 784, for a column of 3 metres. It will therefore be 
very nearly a mean between these four numbers ; 

673 + 715 + 739+784 „„„„„,., 

or = 727-75 litres. 

4 

Whence we obtain 727-75 x -8 = 582-2 litres for the effective 

discharge. 

345. Incomplete Contraction. — When one or more sides of 
the orifice are simply the prolongation of the sides of the reservoir 
or stream, the contraction is sensibly diminished, and the corre- 
sponding coefficient is consequently greater. 

In this case, in order to calculate the effective discharge, the 
numbers must be multiplied by 

1*125, if the contraction is only on one side. 

1-072, " " " two sides. 

1-035, " " " three sides. 

Example. — Required the volume of water discharged by an ori- 
fice of *25 m. in height, 1*3 m. in width, and with a column of -8 m., 
measured from the centre of the orifice, the bottom of the opening 
being in a line with the bottom of the reservoir ; that is to say, the 
contraction taking place only on the three sides ? 

It will be found, according to the table, that the effective discharge 
is 598 litres for a width of one metre, and consequently 598 x 1*3 
= 777 litres, is the discharge for 1.3 m., when the contraction is 
complete. We have, therefore, 777 x 1*035 = 804 litres, the 
actual discharge sought. 

346. Inclined Sluicegate. — It very often happens that the 
sluicegate is inclined. In this case, if there is no contraction on the 
sides or bottom of the orifice, the coefficient needs to be considera- 
bly augmented. Thus, to calculate the effective discharge, it is 
necessary to multiply the numbers in the preceding table by 1-33, 
if the sluice is inclined at an angle of 45°, or with 1 metre of base 
to 1 in height, and by 1*23, if the inclination is 60°, or 1 metre of 
base to 2 in height. 

Example. — It is desired to know the volume of water discharged 
through an orifice inclined at an angle of 45°, having 17 m. in 
height vertically, 1-25 m. in width, and at a distance of 1*2 m. below 
the surface of the reservoir ; the two vertical sides and the bottom 
being in a line with the sides of the reservoir. 

From the table we shall find 398 x 1-25 = 622-5 litres for the 
discharge with a vertical orifice and complete contraction ; conse- 
quently, 622-5 x 1*33 = 828 litres will be the effective discharge 
sought. 

347. When vertical floodgates have their lower edges very near 
the bottom of the reservoir, as is generally the case, to determine 
the discharge, 

Multiply the numbers given in the table by 1-04. 

Example. — What is the volume of water discharged per second 
by a sluice, the orifice of which is opened to a height of -38 m., 
having -8 m. in width, and 2 - 5 m. being the distance from the centre 
to the upper level ? 

The table gives 1,599 litres for the discharge effected through an 
orifice of a metre in width. Whence 1,599 x -8 x 1-04 = 1,330-6 
litres, the effective discharge sought. 

When two sluices are at not more than three metres distance 
from each other, and are open at the same time, the discharge will 
be obtained by 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



113 



Multiplying the numbers given in the table by - 915. 
Example. — If the orifices of two sluices, situated at a couple of 
metres distance from each other, have together a width equal to 
1-5 m., and are both opened to a height of - 45 m., the column of 



water upon their centres being 1-8 m., what will be the effective 
discharge of the two together per second ? 

In the table, we find that 1609 litres corresponds to a column 
of 1-8 m., and a width of 1 m. Therefore, 1609 x 1-5 x -915 
= 2208-35 litres is the required discharge. 



TABLE OF THE DISCHARGE OF WATER BY OVERSHOT OUTLETS OF OKE METRE IN WIDTH. 



Heights 

of the 

reservoir 

level above 

the bottom 

of the outlet. 


Discharge 

in 
litres per second. 


Heights 

of the 

reservoir 

level above 

the bottom 

of the outlet. 


Discharge 

in 

litres per second. 


Heights 

of the 

reservoir 

level above 

the bottom 

of the outlet. 


Discharge 

in 

litres per second. 


1st Case. 


2d Case. 


1st Case. 


2d Case. 


1st Case. 


2d Case. 


5-0 


20 


21 


28-5 


259 


283 


52-0 


639 


698 


5-5 


23 


24 


29'0 


266 


290 


52-5 


648 


708 


60 


26 


27 


29-5 


273 


298 


53-0 


658 


718 


6-5 


29 


31 


30-0 


280 


306 


53-5 


667 


728 


7-0 


32 


34 


30-5 


287 


313 


54-0 


676 


738 


75 


36 


38 


31-0 


293 


321 


545 


685 


748 


8-0 


40 


42 


31-5 


301 


329 


55-0 


694 


758 


8-5 


43 


46 


32-0 


309 


337 


55-5 


704 


769 


9-0 


47 


50 


32-5 


315 


344 


56-0 


713 


779 


9-5 


51 


54 


33-0 


323 


353 


565 


724 


790 


10-0 


56 


59 


33-5 


330 


361 


57-0 


733 


800 


10-5 


60 


63 


34-0 


338 


369 


575 


743 


811 


110 


64 


68 


34-5 


345 


377 


58-0 


753 


822 


11:5 


68 


73 


35-0 


353 


385 


58-5 


762 


832 


12-0 


72 


77 


35-5 


360 


393 


59-0 


771 


842 


125 


77 


82 


36-0 


368 


402 


59-5 


781 


853 


130 


82 


87 


36-5 


375 


410 


60-0 


791 


864 


13-5 


86 


92 


37-0 


382 


419 


60-5 


801 


875 


14-0 


92 


98 


375 


392 


428 


61-0 


811 


886 


145 


97 


103 


38-0 


399 


436 


61-5 


821 


896 


15-0 


101 


108 


38-5 


408 


445 


62-0 


831 


907 


15-5 


107 


114 


390 


415 


453 


62-5 


841 


918 


16-0 


111 


119 


39-5 


423 


462 


63-0 


851 


929 


16-5 


117 


125 


40-0 


431 


471 


63-5 


861 


940 


17-0 


121 


130 


40-5 


439 


479 


64-0 


871 


951 


17-5 


127 


136 


410 


447 


488 


64-5 


882 


963 


18-0 


132 


142 


41-5 


455 


497 


65-0 


892 


974 


18-5 


138 


148 


42-0 


463 


506 


65« 


902 


985 


190 


143 


154 


42-5 


472 


515 


66-0 


912 


996 


19-5 


149 


160 


430 


481 


525 


665 


922 


1007 


20-0 


154 


166 


43-5 


488 


633 


67-0 


932 


1018 


20-5 


160 


173 


44-0 


497 


543 


67-5 


943 


1030 


21-0 


166 


179 


44-5 


506 


552 


68-0 


954 


1042 


215 


171 


185 


45-0 


514 


661 


68-5 


965 


1054 


22-0 


176 


192 


45-5 


523 


671 


69-0 


976 


1066 


22-5 


182 


199 


46-0 


531 


581 


69-5 


987 


1078 


23-0 


188 


205 


46'5 


540 


590 


70-0 


998 


1090 


235 


194 


212 


47-0 


549 


599 


70-5 


1008 


1101 


24-0 


202 


219 


47-5 


558 


609 


710 


1019 


1113 


24-5 


207 


226 


48-0 


567 


619 


715 


1030 


1125 


25-0 


212 


233 


48-5 


576 


629 


720 


1041 


1137 


25-5 


220 


240 


490 


684 


638 


72'fi 


1052 


1149 


260 


226 


247 


495 


593 


648 


730 


1063 


lltil 


26-5 


233 


254 


50-0 


603 


658 


735 


1073 


1172 


27-0 


239 


261 


50-5 


612 


668 


7-1-0 


1084 


1184 


27-5 


245 


268 


610 


621 


678 


74-5 


1095 


1196 


28-0 


253 


276 


515 


630 


688 


75-0 


1106 


1908 



114 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



CALCULATION OF THE DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH OVER- 
SHOT OUTLETS. 

348. The practical formula employed by engineers to determine 
the quantity of water which escapes in a second of time, through 
an overshot or open-topped outlet, is the following : — 

D = W x H x ^29H x m x 1000; 
in which formula, 

D represents, as before, the discharge in litres per second ; 
W, the width of the outlet in metres ; 

H, the depth of the outlet, as measured vertically from its bottom 
edge, to the level of the water in the reservoir. 

The following table is calculated by means of this formula, it 
being supposed, 

First, That the width of the outlet is 1 metre. 

Second, That the heights of the outlet increase at the rate of 
•005 m., from -05 m. up to "75 m. These heights are expressed in 
centimetres in the first column of the table, the corresponding ve- 
locities being given in the table at page 94. 

Third, That the outlet is supposed to be narrower than the reser- 
voir, or water-course, in which case, MM. Poncelet and Lesbros 
give the following numerical values for the term m. : — ■ 



For the height, H, of . . . 
The term, m, is 



m. 


m. 


m. 


m. 


m. 


m. 


m. 


■03 


•04 


•06 


■08 


•10 


•15 


•20 


•412 


•407 


■401 


•397 


•395 


•393 


•390 



•22 
•385 



The corresponding discharges in this case are given in the 
second column of the table. They are expressed in litres per 
second. 

Or, fourth, that the outlet is virtually of the same width as the 
reservoir, or water-course, having its lower edge only a little, if 
anything, above the bottom. In this case, according to M. d'Au- 
buisson (M. Costal's experiments), the coefficient, m, is equal to -42 
on the average. The corresponding discharges will be found in the 
third column of the table. 

Rule. — With the aid of this table, the calculation for determin- 
ing the effective discharge of water by an overshot outlet, reduces 
itself to the following: — 

Multiply the width of the outlet, expressed in metres, by the number 
given in the second column, and corresponding to the height of the 
outlet in the first column, when the outlet is narrower than the water- 
course, and when the water is discharged freely into the air ; 

And by the number in the third column corresponding to the same 
height, when the water-course is of the same width as the outlet, 
its depth, likewise, not being sensibly greater than that of the lower 
edge of the outlet. 

First Example. — It is necessary to determine the volume of 
water discharged per second by an overshot outlet, the width of 
which is 2-5 m., and the height of the overflow -22 m., the case 
being supposed of the first description. 

It will be seen from the second column of the table, that the dis- 
charge effected through an outlet of a metre in width, and of -22 
m. in depth, is 176 litres per second ; whence we have 
176 X 2-5 = 448 litres, the volume sought. 



Second Example.— -Required to determine the discharge with the 
same data ; the case being supposed of the second description. 

In the tliird column, the number corresponding to the depth of 
•22 m. will be found to be 192 litres ; whence, 

192 x 2-5 = 480 litres, the volume sought. 

Remark. — If the given height happen to fall between some of 
the numbers given in the table, it will be necessary to take a mean 
proportional between the two corresponding results, in order to 
obtain the actual discharge. 

Example. — What is the quantity of water discharged by an 
overshot outlet of 3 metres in width, and of a depth equal to 
•183 m.? 

In the first case, the discharge effected, for 1 metre in width, will 
be between 132 and 138 litres, the mean between which is very 
nearly 136. 

Consequently, 136 x 3 = 408 litres, the effective discharge per 
second. 

And in the second case, the discharge effected for 1 metre in 
width, being comprised between the numbers 142 and 148, will be 
about 146. 

Whence, 146 x 3 = 438 litres effective discharge. 

to determine the width of an overshot outlet. 

349. When the volume of water to be discharged per second is 
known, and it is wished to calculate the width to be given to an 
overshot outlet, or sluice-gate, so as to effect the desired discharge 
with a given height of water, this may be done in the following 
manner : — 

Take from the table the number corresponding to the given height 
(this number expressing the discharge for a width of 1 metre), and 
divide the given volume, expressed in litres, it will give the required 
width in metres. 

First Example. — What width must be given to an outlet, re- 
quired to discharge 600 litres per second, with a depth above the 
bottom edge of - 12 m. ? 

In the second column of the table, and opposite -12 m., will be 
found the number 72. 

We have, then — 

600 -4- 72 = 8-33 m., the width sought. 

Second Example. — What width must be given to an open sluice, 
required to discharge 448 litres of water per second, with a depth 
of -205 m. ? 

From the table, we find that 160 litres is the effectual discnarge, 
corresponding to a width of 1 metre. 

Whence — 

448 -~ 160 = 2-8 m., the width sought. 

TO determine the depth of the outlet. 

350. Cases may occur where we are limited as to width. It is 
then necessary to ascertain the least depth necessary to effect the 
required discharge, which may be done by means of the following 
rule : — 

Divide the discharge expressed in litres per second, by the width in 
metres, and, take tlie number in the second column which is nearest to 
the quotient obtained, the number in the first column corresponding 
will give the depth sought, or very nearly so. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



115 



Example. — With what depth of outlet will a discharge of 350 
litres per second be effected, the width being limited to 2 metres ? 

We have 

350 -=- 2 = 175 litres. 

In the second column of the table will be found the number 176, 
corresponding to a height of -22 m. in the first column, which will 
therefore be the required height, within a millimetre. 

351. Obseevation. — When it is not possible to measure the 
depth, H, with exactness, the lesser depth, h, must be taken im- 
mediately over the lower edge of the outlet, and multiplied by 1-178, 
so as to obtain the actual value of H, corresponding to the num- 



bers given in the table, according as the outlet is narrower than the 
reservoir, or water-course, or equal to it in width. 

First Example. — Determine the discharge effected through an 
outlet, 4 metres wide, the depth, h, immediately above the lower 
edge being equal to "11 m., the width being about four-fifths of 
that of the reservoir. 

We have -11 m. x 1*178 = -13 m., for the assumed height, H, 
of the reservoir level. 

Corresponding to this height, we have, in the second column, the 
quantity, 82 litres. 

Then 82 x 4 = 328 litres, the effective discharge sought. 



TABLE OF THE DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH PD?ES. 





Diameters of the Pipes. 


Mean 






















velocity 
in 


•10 


Q. 


•15 


m. 


•20 


m. 


•25 


m. 


■30 


m. 


metres 






















per 


Discharge 


Fall 


Discharge 


Fall 


Discharge 


Fall 


Discharge 


Fall 


Discharge 


Fall 


second. 


in 


per metre 


in 


per metre 


in 


per metre 


in 


per metre 


in 


per metre 




litres 


in length 


litres 


in length 


litres 


in length 


litres 


in length 


litres 


in length 




per 


in 


per 


in 


per 


in. 


per 


in 


per 


in 




second. 


centimetres. 


second. 


centimetres. 


second. 


centimetres. 


second. 


centimetres. 


second. 


centimetres. 


010 


0-8 


0-02 


1-8 


o-oi 


31 


0-01 


4-9 


o-oi 


7-07 


o-oi 


0-15 


1-2 


0-04 


2-6 


0-03 


4-7 


0-02 


7-4 


0-02 


10-60 


o-oi 


0-20 


1-6 


0-07 


3-5 


0-05 


6-3 


0-03 


9-8 


0-03 


14-14 


0-02 


0-25 


2-0 


0-10 


4-4 


0-07 


7-8 


0-05 


12-3 


0-04 


17-67 


0.03 


0-30 


2-3 


0-15 


5-3 


0-10 


9-4 


0-07 


14-7 


0-06 


21-20 


0-05 


0'35 


2-7 


0-19 


61 


0-13 


11-0 


o-io 


17-2 


0-08 


24-74 


0-07 


0-40 


31 


0-25 


7-1 


0-17 


12-6 


0-12 


19-6 


010 


28-27 


0-08 


0-45 


35 


0-31 


8-0 


0-21 


14-1 


0-16 


22-0 


0-12 


31-81 


010 


0-50 


39 


0-38 


8-8 


0-25 


157 


0-19 


24-5 


015 


35-34 


013 


055 


43 


0-46 


9-7 


0-30 


17-3 


0-23 


27-0 


0-18 


38-88 


015 


0-60 


4-7 


0-54 


10-6 


0-36 


18-8 


0-27 


29-4 


0-22 


42-41 


0-18 


065 


51 


0-63 


113 


0-42 


20-4 


032 


31-9 


0-25 


4595 


0-21 


0-70 


55 


0-73 


124 


0-49 


22-0 


0-36 


34-4 


0-29 


49-48 


0-24 


0-75 


5-9 


0-83 


13-2 


0-56 


23-6 


0-42 


36-8 


0-33 


53-01 


0-28 


0-80 


6-3 


0-95 


141 


0-63 


251 


0-47 


39-3 


0-38 


56-55 


0-31 


0-85 


6-7 


1-06 


150 


0-71 


26-7 


0-53 


41-7 


0-43 


60-08 


0-35 


0-90 


7-0 


1-19 


159 


0-79 


28-3 


0-59 


44-2 


0-48 


63-62 


0-40 


0-95 


7-5 


1-32 


168 


0-88 


29-8 


0-66 


46-6 


0-53 


67-15 


0-44 


1-00 


7-8 


1-46 


177 


0-97 


31-4 


0-73 


49- 1 


0-58 


70-7 


0-49 


1-10 


8-6 


1-76 


194 


1-17 


345 


0-88 


54-0 


0-70 


77-7 


0-59 


1-20 


9-4 


2-09 


21-2 


1-39 


37-7 


1-04 


58-9 


0-83 


84-8 


0-69 


1-30 


10-2 


2-44 


23-0 


1-63 


40-8 


1-22 


63-8 


0-98 


91-9 


0-81 


1-40 


110 


2-82 


24-7 


1-88 


44-0 


141 


68-7 


1-13 


98-9 


0-94 


1-50 


11-8 


3-24 


26-5 


2-16 


47-1 


1-62 


73-6 


1-29 


106-0 


1-08 


1-60 


126 


3-68 


28-3 


2-45 


50-3 


1-84 


78-5 


1-47 


113-1 


1-22 


1-70 


133 


4-14 


306 


2-76 


534 


2-07 


83-4 


1-66 


120-2 


1-38 


1-80 


141 


4-64 


31-8 


3-09 


56-5 


2-32 


88-3 


1-85 


127-2 


1-55 


1-90 


14-9 


516 


336 


3-44 


597 


2-58 


93-3 


2-06 


134-3 


1-72 


2-00 


157 


5-71 


353 


3-80 


62*8 


2-86 


98-2 


2-28 


1414 


1-90 


2-10 


164 


6-29 


371 


419 


66-0 


314 


1031 


2-51 


148-4 


210 


2-20 


172 


6-89 


38-9 


liii) 


(iiil 


3-45 


108-0 


2-76 


155-5 


2-30 


2-30 


18-0 


753 


40-6 


502 


72-2 


3-76 


112-9 


301 


162-6 


2-50 


2-40 


18-8 


8-19 


42-4 


5-46 


75'4 


4-09 


117-8 


3-28 


169-6 


2-73 


2-50 


196 


8-88 


11-3 


6-91 


78-5 


444 


122-7 


3-55 


1767 


2-96 


2'60 


20-4 


9-60 


459 


(MO 


817 


4-80 


127-6 


3-83 


183-8 


3-20 


2-70 


212 


1034 


47-7 


6-89 


84-8 


617 


132-5 


414 


190-8 


31 1 


280 


22-0 


1111 


l!)| 


7-11 


88-0 


556 


1374 


11.) 


197-9 


8'70 


290 


22 '8 


11-92 


512 


7-94 


911 


595 


1423 


4-77 


205-0 


3-97 


3-00 


236 


12-74 


530 


8-50 


942 


637 


147-3 


510 


2121 


4-25 



116 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Second Example. — With the like data, what would be the effec- 
tive discharge, supposing the outlet to be of the same width and 
depth as the reservoir ? 

We have, as before, "11 x 1-178 = -13 m. for the depth, H, 
to which 87 litres is the coiresponding discharge, as in the third 
column. 

Whence — 

87 X 4 = 348 litres, the actual discharge. 

OUTLET WITH A SPOUT, OR DUCT. 

352. It may happen that a spout or duct, slightly inclined, or 
even horizontal, is fitted to the outlet, and that it is more contract- 
ed, both at the bottom and at the sides, than the reservo.ir. In such 
case, the discharge is sensibly different; and to determine it, it is 
necessary to multiply the numbers in the second column of the table 
by -83, when the height is -2 m., or upwards ; by -8, when the 
height is -15 m. ; and by - 76, when the height is only *1 m. 

PIPES FOR THE CONDUCTION OF WATER. 

353. The formulas employed in calculating the proportions of a 
conduit for water of uniform section, consisting of cylindrical tubes, 
are the following ; — 



V = 53-58 



/ dF 

v— - 



and 



D = S V = 



jtd* 



xV. 



0-025; 



In which, 
V is the mean velocity ; 
D, the volume in litres; 
d, the internal diameter of the conduit ; 
F, the fall per metre, or the length, L, of the conduit, divided by 

the difference between the levels at either extremity ; and 
S, the section of the conduit. 

In order to abridge the calculations, we five a table, with the 
aid of which, various questions relative to the laying down of 
water-ducts, formed by cylindrical tubes, may be solved very 
speedily. 

First Example. — What fall must be given to a conduit, *1 m. in 
diameter, in order that it may discharge 11 litres of water per 
second ? 

From the table it will be seen, that the fall, in this case, should 
be -1 c, or 1 millimetre, per metre. 

Second Example. — What diameter must be given to a conduit, 
500 metres in length, in order that it may discharge 168 cubic metres 
of water per hour, the whole fall being -265 m. ? 

We have 168 cubic metres, or 168,000 litres, -^- (60 x 60) = 
46-65 litres, discharged per second; 
and "265 -*- 500 = -53 c, the fall per metre. 

It will be seen from the table, that the diameter necessary for 
this discharge, and with this fall, is -25 m., or 25 centimetres. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
APPLICATION OF SHADOWS TO .TOOTHED GEAR. 



PLATE XXX. 



SPUR WHEELS. 



Figures 1 and 2. 



354. We have already pointed out, that before shading an object 
in a finished manner, it is generally necessary to lay down the out- 
lines of all the shadows, proper and cast, which may happen to be 
occasioned by the form of each part. 

Thus, before proceeding to apply the finishing shades to the spur- 
wheel and pinion, fig. A, we must first determine, separately, on 
each wheel, both the shadow proper of the external surface of the 
web, and the shadows of the teeth upon it, and also upon them- 
selves. The operations called for with one of the wheels are indi- 
cated in the figures. 

The external surface, a c, of the web, a, of the spur wheel, 
being cylindrical, the line of separation of light and shade will be 
obviously determined by a tangent parallel to the luminous ray, 
or better, by the radius, o D, at right angles to this. By squaring 
over the point of contact, d, in the horizontal projection, we obtain 
the line, d' e, in the vertical projection. Similarly, by squaring 
over the point, e, we get the straight line, f' g, for the line of 
separation of light and shade on the outer ends of the teeth, 



which are likewise cylindrical. A portion of the lateral surface of 
the teeth is also in the shade, as will easily be determined, by draw- 
ing lines through the extreme angles, as a, b, c, &c, parallel to the 
luminous rays. Thus the surfaces, a d,b e, and cf, do not receive 
any light, and are, therefore, shaded in the elevation, as within the 
outlines, a' d' g h, V e' ij, and c' f k I. 

Each of these teeth, also, easts a shadow upon the cylindrical 
surface of the web; and as their edges, a' h, b'j, c' I, are vertical, 
their shadows on the web are also vertical. These last are deter- 
mined by drawing the luminar lines through the points, a, b, c, and 
a', V, c', and then squaring over the points of contact, m, n, o, to 
m', n', o'. 

To complete the shadows of the teeth upon the web, it is further 
necessary to obtain the outline corresponding to the edges, ad,be, 
cf, &c. We already have the extreme points, d',e',f, and m', n', o', 
and in most cases these are sufficient. Where, however, greater 
exactness is required, it is well to find a few intermediate points. 
The lower edge of the tooth, also, casts a shadow upon the web, 
which is obtained in the same manner, by drawing luminar lines 
through the points, p, q, r, meeting the surface of the web in points 
projected vertically in r', »'. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



117 



Some of the teeth, also, cast shadows upon each other ; hut as 
their surfaces are vertical, these shadows are simply determined by 
the contact of the luminar lines with them. Thus, the edges pro- 
jected in s, t, y, &c, have for shadows the straight lines projected 
vertically in u' u\ x' x 1 , z' z*. 

Finally, when we have drawn the horizontal projection of the 
wheel, as in the present example, we have to determine the shadow 
cast by the web upon the tenons of the teeth, and upon the arms, 
or spokes. All these surfaces being horizontal and parallel, the 
shadow cast upon each will be a circle equal to the one, H i l, 
which is the projection of the inner edge of the web. All that is 
necessary, then, is to draw through the centre, o, o', a line parallel 
to the luminous ray ; and to find the points of intersection, o 2 and 
o 3 , with the planes, m o" and n o"', in which lie the upper surfaces 
of the tenons and of the arms, and to describe arcs with the points, 
o a and o 3 , as centres, and with the common radius, o h (280). In 
the same manner we obtain the shadows cast by the boss of the 
wheel, and by the feathers upon the arms. 

When we have thus gone through the requisite operations for 
each wheel, we proceed with the, shading, according to the prin- 
ciples laid down (289, et seq.), covering first the portions which 
require a more pronounced shade, and leaving the lighter parts to 
the last. 

The specimen, fig. A, which we recommend to be copied on a 
larger scale, indicates the various gradations of shade required to 
produce the proper effect, according to the different positions of the 
planes, and to the contour of the surfaces. These wheels are also 
supposed to be mounted upon their shafts, which are shaded as 
polished cylinders. 

bevil wheels. 
Figures 3 and 4. 

355. The procedure here called for will be the same as in the 
preceding case — that is to say, we must first draw the outlines of 
the shadows, proper and cast, for each wheel. The figures repre- 
sent a horizontal and vertical projection of a bevil wheel with cast- 
iron teeth, the shadows being indicated on the different surfaces. 

The external surfaces of the teeth and of the web being conical, 
the shadows proper are determined in the same manner as for the 
cone, by drawing through the apex a plane parallel to the luminous 
ray, and finding the generatrix at which this plane touches the 
conical surface (313). 

It is in this manner that, for the outer ends of the teeth, we ob- 
tain the generatrix projected in o a, fig. 3, and for the outer surface 
of the web, that projected in o b. These generatrices, which are the 
lines of Reparation of light and shade, are projected vertically in the 
straight lines, c' a' and r/ b', converging to tho apex of the cone ; 
since, however, these lines occur between two teeth in the pre at 
example, they are not apparent in fig. 4. 

Some of the teeth have their lateral faces in the shade, whilst, all 
the lower conical surface corresponding to the wider enda of the 
teeth is in deep shade, as indicated in fig. 4 by a darker tint. 

Wo have, besides, merely to determine the shadows cast by 
the outer edges, a d, b e, cf, and by the curved portions, dg, e //, 
and/i. Now, tho outer edges, a d, b e, cf, cast shadows upon 
the conical surface of the web, which are represented by straight 



lines coinciding with generatrices on this surface ; and therefore, 
to determine them, we must draw through the corresponding edges 
a series of planes parallel to the luminous ray ; the whole of these 
necessarily passing through the common apex, o, it is simply re- 
quisite, therefore, to find the shadow cast by any one point in 
these edges. Let us take, for example, the points, d, e, /, all 
situate in the same circle, e d f ; the operation, then, is to find 
the shadow of this circle upon the conical surface, and is the same 
as that which we have already indicated and explained several 
times ; it consists, in fact, in drawing any planes, g h and i j, per- 
pendicular to the cone's axis, and, consequently, parallel to the plane 
of the circle, e d f. 

356. We have seen that the shadow cast by the circle, E d f, 
upon each of the planes, will be a circle equal to itself; and it is, 
therefore, simply necessary to find the shadow cast by the centre, 
o, o'. This shadow falls in o, o', on the plane, g h, and in o\ o 3 , on 
the plane, i i ; if , then, with the points, o and o 3 , as centres, and 
with the radii, o k' and o" j', equal to the radius, o e, we draw a 
couple of arcs, these arcs will cut the circles, g' k' h' and i' l' j', the 
projections of the sectional planes, in the points, k' and j', which, 
being squared over to the vertical projection in the points, k and j, 
will give two points in the curve, j K m n, representing the shadow 
cast by the circle, e d f, upon the conical surface of the web. 
Consequently, if we draw the luminar lines through the points, 
d', e',f, &c, the respective points of their intersection with the 
curve, as M, p, q, will represent then - shadows cast upon the web 
surface. These points are squared over to m', p', q', in the hori- 
zontal projection. 

The points, g, h, i, situated upon the upper base of the cone, 
obviously cast no shadows, the shadows of the teeth, however, 
-springing from them ; if it is wished to determine any points be- 
tween these and those already found, it will be necessary to de- 
scribe an imaginary circle, such as g', k', h', passing between the 
points, d and g, the outer and inner angles of the teeth. Tho 
curve, e s T, as projected in the elevation, will be found to repre- 
sent the shadow cast by this circle upon the conical surface of tho 
web. 

As the edges, a d, b e, cf, cast shadows which coincide with 
generatrices of the cone, they may be obtained simply by drawing 
straight lines through tho several points, m', q', and v', converging 
in the apex of the cone in both planes of projection. 

Finally, the shadows cast by some of tho outer edges of tho 
teeth, such as/ c, upon the teeth immediately behind, are defined 
by drawing the luminar line,//, through tho point,/, meeting the 
flank, / m, of the other tooth, which lies in a vortical plane. Tins 
point of contact is projected vertically in /', on tho vertical projec- 
tion,/' /', of the laminar line. Il now remains to draw a line. /' », 
through this point, /', and through the apex of the cone, and this 

line will represent the shadow cast by the edge,,/ <■. 

357. In the case where tho luminar line passing through tho 

extremity of the tooth— -as that, for example, drawn through the 

p,,ii, |, p — falls upon a curved portion o( the tooth behind, it is 

necessary, if great accuracy is required, to imagine a vertical 

plane passing through this point and through the luminar line, 

and then t" h"<\ the intersection of this plane with the curved sur- 
face of the tOOth. This would require a separate diagram j hut 



U8 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the operation is very simple, and lias been explained in reference to 
previous examples (287). 

358. The example, fig. [B, represents the application of finished 
shading to a bevil wheel with wooden teeth, in gear with a pinion 
on each side, each with cast-iron teeth. It is to be remarked, that 
although the shadows are not the same upon each of these wheels, 
because of their different positions with regard to the light, these 
are, nevertheless, determined by means of the same operations as 
those which we have just explained. 

In shading this example, the principles and observations already 
discussed must be borne in mind, and note taken of the various 
lights and shades. It is also to be observed, that, from the posi- 
tions of the two pinions, the inner end of the shaft of one is com- 
pletely in the shade, whilst the inner end of the other is illumi- 
nated. 



APPLICATION OF SHADOWS TO SCREWS. 

PLATE XXXI. 

359. It has already been shown, that a screw may be generated 
by a triangle, a rectangle, or by a circle, the plane of which passes 
through the axis of the screw, the generating movement being along 
a helical path. The screw is, consequently, called triangular, 
square, or round- threaded. In each of these cases, the outer edges 
cast shadows upon the core of the screw, or upon the twisted sur- 
face of the consecutive convolutions of the thread itself. If the 
screw is surmounted by a head, there will be, in addition, the 
shadow cast by this upon the outer surface of the thread, as well 
as upon the other parts. We shall proceed to explain the methods 
of determining the various shadows upon these different kinds of 
screws. 

cylindrical square-threaded screw. 
Figures 1, 2, 2°, and 3. 

360. The limit of the shadow proper upon the screw, is obtained 
in the same manner as that upon a right cylinder, by drawing the 
radius, o a, at right angles to the ray of light, R o, and then squar- 
ing over the point, a, to a' and a 3 , and drawing a line through these 
parallel to the axis of the cylinder. In the same manner we obtain, 
by projecting the point, b, the line of separation of light and shade, 
b' b 2 , upon the surface of the core. 

The shadows cast by the outer edge of the threads upon the 
cylindrical surface of the core, are simply determined by means of 
the straight lines c c, d d, drawn parallel to the luminous ray, r o, 
and meeting the circle, e d b, the projection of the core, in c and d; 
then, by squaring over the points, c d, to c' d', and drawing through 
the latter the straight lines, c c', d d', parallel to the ray of light, 
r', we obtain the points, c', d', for the shadows sought. We can, 
in the same manner, obtain as many points as are necessary to 
complete the curved outline of the shadow. 

When the threads of the screw are inclined to the left, as in figs. 
2" and 3, instead of being inclined to the right, as in figs. 1 and 2, 
the operations necessary for determining the curve of the shadows 
are still the same. This is rendered sufficiently plain by the em- 
ployment of the same letters to represent similar and symmetrical ' 



points ; it only requires to be observed, that the end view, fig. 3 
is that of the right half of the screw, whilst that in fig. 1 is one of 
the left half, or, one may be supposed to be the turning over of the 
end of the screw to the right, whilst the other is to the left ; the 
ray of light is similarly respectively represented to the right and 
left ; this, however, does not make any difference, as it is the length 
of the line merely, as d d, which is required. The luminous ray, 
in both cases, makes an angle of 45° with the axis of the screw, 
which is horizontal. 

The polygonal head, fghi, which separates the right-handed 
from the left-handed portion of the screw, casts a shadow upon a 
part of the latter, represented by curves, which will be easily de- 
termined, in accordance wth previous examples (285 and 286), and 
the principal points in which are/, g, in figs. 2" and 3. 

screw with several rectangular threads. 
Figures 4 and 5. 

361. The construction of the shadows of a rectangular-threaded 
screw is the same, whether it be in a horizontal or vertical position, 
or whether it be right-handed or left-handed. Thus, the screw 
with several rectangular threads, represented in figs. 4 and 5, has 
in the first place a shadow proper, limited by the vertical line, a' a", 
as squared over from the point, a, and next, the shadow, c' d' f'i 
cast upon the core by the outer edge of the thread, c' d' e' ; there 
is, moreover, a portion of the shadow cast by the circular shoulder, 
g h i, upon the threads, and also upon the core. The outlines of 
these shadows are found in precisely the same manner as those in 
figs. 1, 2, and 3 (361). 

TRIANGULAR-THREADED screw. 
Figubes 6, 6", 7, AND 8. 

362. When the screw is generated by an isosceles triangle, such 
as c a d, fig. 6, of which the height, a b, is greater than the half of 
the base, c d, there will be a shadow cast by the outer edge of the 
thread upon the twisted surface of the succeeding convolution. In 
proceeding to determine the outline of this shadow, in accordance 
with the general method, which consists in finding the points of 
contact of the luminous rays with the surface, we are led to seek, 
in the first place, the curve of intersection of this surface, with a 
plane passing through the luminous ray, and parallel to the axis of 
the screw. 

For this purpose, let e o, fig. 7, be the sectional plane ; its in- 
tersection with the outer edge, c g' p, of the screw-thread will be 
in the point, e, e', figs. 6 and 7, and similarly its intersection with 
the inside, a I g, will be in the point, r, r'. To obtain interme- 
diate points of the sectional curve, we must describe various circles 
with the centre, o, and radii, o m, o n, representing the projections 
of so many cylinders, on which lie the helices comprised between 
the inner one, a I g, and outermost, d e 2 s, being of the same pitch 
as these latter. We thereby obtain the points of intersection, h, i, 
fig. 7, which are to be squared over to h', i', in fig. 6, and then, by 
joining the several points, e 2 , h', i', r, we get the curve of inter- 
section of the plane with the helical surface of the thread ; so that, 
if we draw a luminar line, e' e', through the point, e', in the same 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



119 



plane, its intersection with the curve, e 2 h' i' r, will give a point, e', 
in the outline of the shadow sought. 

In like manner, hy drawing other planes, as f h and g i, parallel 
to the first, e o, we shall obtain the intersectional curves, f 2 /' h' 
and G j y g' I, and further upon these the points,/' and g', of the 
outline of the shadow. By proceeding thus, we can obtain as many 
points as may be deemed necessary for the construction of the 
shadow cast by the outer edge, c G ' p, of the thread, and the curve 
obtained is, of course, repeated on the several convolutions of the 
thread. We would remark, that there is no shadow cast when the 
depth of the thread is such, only that a b, fig. 6, is less than the half 
of the base, c d, of the generating triangle. 

The diagrams, figs. 6' and 8, which represent a portion of a left- 
handed screw, will show that the operations required in this modi- 
fication, to determine the outlines of the shadows, are precisely the 
same as those last explained. 

The core, n, which separates the two portions of the double 
screw, as well as the end, n', receives a shadow cast by the outer 
edge of the adjacent convolution of the thread. 

shadows upon a round-threaded screw. 
Figures 9 and 10. 

363. These figures represent a species of screw generated by a 
circle, abed, the plane of which passes through the screw's axis, 
and of which each point describes a helix about the same axis. 
The intervals or hollows between the convolutions of the thread 
are also formed with a helical surface generated by a semicircle, 
d e /, tangential to the first. We have, then, to determine the 
limiting line of the shadow proper upon the screw, and the shadow 
cast by this line upon the hollows. 

The projecting thread being a species of spiral torus or serpen- 
tine, the determination of its shadow will be similar to that of the 
shadow of the ring (323). 

Thus, if the screw be sectioned by a vertical plane, g o, passing 
through its axis, it*, intersection with the thread will evidently be a 
circle, as projected in/' I', fig. 9. This circle, being inclined to the 
vertical plane of projection, fig. 10, is projected therein in the form 
of an ellipse, the principal points, j, k, I, of which are obtained by 
squaring over the points,/', k', I 1 , respectively, upon the helices cor- 
responding to the points, a, b, c. If, then, upon the plane, g 0, 
which we suppose to be reproduced at og, fig. 10", we project the 
luminous ray, r o, it will be sufficient to determine the point of 
contact of this ray with the curve,/ k I; for this purpose, find the 
projection of the ray upon the vertical plane in g' o', fig. 10°; then 
draw a line, g* (?, tangential to the ellipse,/ k I, and parallel to the 
straight lino, g 1 o', its point of contact, m, with the ellipse will be a 
point in the line of separation of light and shade upon the outer 
surface of the screw-thread. By proceeding in this manner, any 
number of points in this line may be obtained. 

By continuing the sectional plane, g o, across the hollow of the 
screw, we shall likewise obtain the elliptic curve, n o* the principal 
points in which are equally situated upon the helices which pass 
through the points, d, e,f; it is sufficient to prolong the luminal 
line, ^ o\ until it. cuts the ellipse, R <? p, so as to obtain the point, 
©", which is tho shadow cast by the corresponding point, m, of the 



line of separation of light and shade upon the hollows or intervals 
between the convolutions of the thread. 

It is to be remarked, that the prolongation of the line of separa- 
tion of light and shade, s t, casts a shadow upon the outer surface 
of the convolution immediately below ; and, in the same manner, 
the shoulder above casts a shadow over the projection and hollow 
of the adjacent thread. 



APPLICATION OF SHADOWS TO A BOILER AND ITS 
FURNACE. 

PLATE XXXII. 

SHADOW OF THE SPHERE. 

Figure 1. 

364. It will be recollected, that a sphere is a regular solid, gene- 
rated by the revolution of a semicircle about its diameter. From 
this definition it follows, that its convex or concave surface, ac- 
cording as it is considered solid or hollow, is a surface of revolution, 
of which every point is equally distant from the centre of the gene- 
rating circle. To determine, then, the shadow proper, upon the 
surface of a sphere, we can proceed according to the general prin- 
ciple (328) ; but, in this particular case, the following will be the 
simpler method. 

Let us suppose the sphere to be enveloped in a right cylinder, 
having its axis parallel to the luminous ray ; this cylinder will touch 
the sphere at a great circle, which is, in fact, the line of separation 
of light and shade, and the plane of which is perpendicular to the 
luminous ray, and, consequently, inclined to the planes of projec- 
tion ; it follows, therefore, that the projection of this line upon these 
planes will be an ellipse. 

Thus, let fig. 1 represent the horizontal projection of a sphere, 
whose radius is o a, the projections of the extreme generatrices, b c 
and D e, of the cylinder, parallel to the luminous ray, touch the 
external contour of the sphere in the points, c, e, which are dia- 
metrically opposite to each other, and are the extremities of the 
transverse axis of the ellipse. 

As, in general, this curve can be drawn when its two axes are 
determined, it merely remains to find the length of its conjugate 
axis. To this effect let us imagine a vertical plane to pass through 
the luminous ray, r o, and let us take two lines tangent to the 
section of the sphere in this plane, and parallel to the luminous 
ray ; if now wo turn this plane about tho line, r o, considered as 
an axis, so as to fold it over upon, and make it coincide with, tho 
horizontal plane, the great circle, which is its section with tho 
sphere, will obviously coincide with the circle drawn with tho 
radius, a o. Tho luminous ray will, as already seen e-!S7), bo 
turned over to r' o, making an angle of 36° 16' with the line, R O. 
It may also be obtained by making tho line, r' r, perpendicular to 
B o. and equal to a side of the square, as G n, and then joining 
R' O. Tho two luminous rays tangential to the sphere will then 
coincide with the straight lines, n i. and M N. parallel to i; o : 
their points of contact with the great circle will be the extremities 

of the diameter, t. h, perpendicular to b! o. It' now we imagine 

the plane to be returned to its original position, tho points, l and 



120 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



K, will be projected in 1/ and n', thereby giving the length, l n, of 
the conjugate axis of the ellipse sought. 

365. If, in place of constructing this ellipse by the ordinary 
methods, it is preferred to determine the various points by means of 
a series of analogous sections, with their subsequent operations, 
it will be sufficient, for example, to draw the plane, a b, parallel to 
r o, and then to turn over, as it were, the section of the sphere 
formed by this plane, so that it shall coincide with the horizontal 
plane, making its centre, at the same time, to coincide with the 
centre, o, of the sphere, the section in question being a circle, 
described with the radius, c o, equal to a c. Next draw the tan- 
gent, e d, parallel to r' o, and then project the point, d, on the 
diameter, l n, to d', upon the original line of section, and a point 
in the elliptic curve. In this manner, as many points may be ob- 
tained as are wished. The distance, c d\ being made equal to c d', d 1 
will be the symmetrical point in the opposite, and now apparent 
part of the ellipse. 

If the projection of the sphere were supposed to be upon the 
vertical plane, the operations would be identical, only the transverse 
axis of the ellipse, instead of being in the direction, c e, would, on 
the contrary, be in the direction, a i, perpendicular to it, as seen on 
fig. IB, representing the hemispherical end of a boiler, shaded and 
finished. 

shadow cast upon a hollow sphere. 
Figure 2. 

366. When a hollow sphere is cut by a plane passing through its 
centre, and parallel to the plane of projection, the inner edge of the 
section will cast a shadow upon the concave surface, the outline 
of which will be an elliptic curve, which may be determined in ac- 
cordance with the general principle of parallel sections, already 
explained (287), or by means of the simpler system of sections and 
auxiliary views adopted in the preceding example, and of which we 
shall proceed to give another instance, in fig. 2. 

This figure represents the projection of a hollow sphere upon 
the vertical plane, being, in fact, the section through the line, 1 — 2, 
of the boiler, represented in figs. 4 and 5. If this hemisphere be 
sectioned by a diametrical plane, a b, parallel to the luminous ray, 
the section represented in the auxiliary view, fig. 3, will be a semi- 
circle, a' c' b'. The luminous ray, lying in this plane, and passing 
through the point, a, a', will, in fig. 3, be represented by the line, 
a' c', parallel to the line, r' a, obtained, as indicated in fig. 2, by 
the method already explained. This straight line, a' c', cuts the 
circle, a' c' b', in the point, c', which must be squared over to 
c, on the line, a b, fig. 2", when c will be the shadow cast by the 
point, a. 

In the same manner we obtain the points, b, d, by means of the 
sectional planes, ab,cd, parallel to a b, and cutting the sphere in 
semicircles, represented by a' b' e, in fig. 3. This semicircle is cut 
in the point, b', by the line, a' V, parallel to a' c'. The extreme 
points, d, e, are obviously situated at the extremities of the diame- 
ter, d e, perpendicular to the luminous ray, r o, and representing 
the transverse axis of the ellipse. These shadows are frequently 
met with in architectural and mechanical subjects ; as, for example, 
in niches, domes, and boilers. 



APPLICATIONS. 

367. Fig. 4 represents a longitudinal section, at the line, 3 — 4, 
in fig. 5, of a cylindrical wrought-iron boiler, with hemispherical 
ends, and surmounted by a couple of cylindrical chambers, one of 
which serves for a man-hole, and has a cover fitted to it. 

Fig. 5 is a plan of the same boiler, looking down upon it, and 
showing the cylindrical chambers. 

Fig. 6 is a transverse section, made at the line, 5 — 6, in figs. 4 
and 5. 

For this boiler, we have to determine — 

First, In fig. 4, the shadows, d<Jc and e b c, cast upon the 
spherical surfaces at either end of the boiler, as well as those, c gi 
andy k I, upon the cylindrical surface, together with the shadows 
cast on the interior of the cylindrical chambers. 

Second, In fig. 5, the shadows proper of the external cylindrical 
and spherical portions of the boiler, and the shadows cast upon 
these by the cylindrical chambers. 

In fig. 7, we apply the same letters as to the analogous diagram, 
fig. 3, this view being drawn for the purpose of obtaining the elliptic 
curve, d d c, of the shadow cast by the circular portion, a c d, upon 
the internal spherical surface of the end of the boiler. 

In the same manner is obtained the portion, e b c I, by means of 
the diagram, fig. 8, observing that the sections made parallel to the 
ray of light, above the line, a b, give semicircles, whilst those mada 
below, such as f c, give the circular portion to the right of the 
line, a o, but an elliptical portion to the left of this line, in conse- 
quence of this portion of the plane cutting the cylindrical part of 
the boiler obliquely. It must be remarked, that the cylindrical 
chambers, situated on tne top of the boiler, give rise to the inter- 
sections, i j k f, which cast shadows upon the interior of the boiler, 
instead of the rectilinear portion, i f, of the extreme generatrix of 
the cylinder, which would have cast a shadow, had the cylindrical 
chambers not been there. 

The shadow cast by the edge of these intersecting surfaces is 
limited to the curves, J k f, which may be easily delineated with 
the aid of the section, fig. 6, by squaring over the points, J, k, l, f, 
to the arc, j' s" l' f', and then drawing a series of luminar lines 
through these points; that is, lines parallel to the ray of light. 
These will meet the internal surface of the cylinder in the points, 
/', k', V, which are squared over again to the longitudinal section, 
fig. 4, by means of horizontals, intersecting the luminar lines, drawn 
through the corresponding points in the edges of each chamber, in 
the points, j, k, I. The rectilinear portion, f i, of the uppermost 
generatrix of the cylinder, has for its shadow, on the internal sur- 
face thereof, the similar and equal straight line, I i, which coincides, 
in the projection, with the axis, o o (308). 

A part of the extreme left-hand generatrix, i n, of each cylindri- 
cal chamber, likewise casts a shadow upon the internal surface of 
the boiler, the outline of which is a curve, i mj, which is simply an 
arc of a circle, described with the centre, o, and with the radius, o i, 
equal to that, c o, of the boiler. This shadow is circular, because 
the straight line, i n, which casts it, is perpendicular to the axis of 
the cylinder; whilst the axis and itself lie in a plane, parallel to the 
plane of projection. 

We can,' however, determine the points, i, m, j, of the curve. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



12i 



independently, with the assistance of the auxiliary projection, fig. 6, 
at right angles to fig. 4. 

It is the same with the curve, n p q, which is likewise an arc of 
a circle, because the straight line, n p, the edge of the cover which 
cl oses the top of the chamber, is at right angles to the axis of the 
latter, and at the same time parallel to the vertical plane of projec- 
tion. The edges, n r and r m, being vertical, have for shadows 
upon the internal surface of the chamber, a couple of vertical 
straight lines, parallel to themselves (309). The chamber to the 
right having a circular opening in the cover, has a shadow upon its 
internal surface, necessarily different from that in the other cham- 
ber. It is, however, easily obtained, and in the same manner as in 
figs. 1 and 1", Plate XXVIII. It must be observed, however, that 
a portion, s I w, of this shadow is due to the under edge, s t u, of 
the cover-piece ; whilst the other part, s v, takes its contour from 
the upper edge, v x, of the same piece. A comparison of figs. 4 
and 5 will render these points easy of comprehension. 

There remains, finally, the curve, c e g h, and the rectilinear por- 
tion, h i, together extending from the first, d d c, to the straight 
line, i i, and which represents the shadow cast by the arc, A f, g H, 
of the hemispherical end of the boiler, and the straight part, h i, of 
the upper edge of the cylindrical portion. 

The whole curve, d d, c g i, representing the shadow cast by 
the edge of the section of the boiler upon the internal surface of 
the latter, is precisely the same as that distinguished in architecture 
by the name of the niche shadow. It is to be observed, however, 
that the position in this case is different, as the axis of the niche is 
vertical. 

We have now to draw the shadows, proper and cast, upon the 
outer surface of the boiler, as seen in horizontal projection, fig. 5. 
As for the shadow proper, it consists partly in that limited by the 
liDe of separation of light and shade, d d, obtained by the tangential 
line, making an angle of 45° with the horizon, and touching the 
circle in the point, c, and partly in that bounded by the elliptic 
curves, c d and d c' E, upon the spherical ends of the boiler, the 
manner of determining which has already been thoroughly discussed 
in reference to fig. 1. 

368. As to the shadows cast by the cylindrical chambers, either 
on their neck pieces, or upon the outside of the boiler itself, they 
are simply represented by lines inclined at an angle of 45°, as a' d', 
b' e', drawn tangential to the outsides of the cylinders, and which 
are prolonged in straight lines, as far as the line of separation of 
light and shade, upon the cylindrical portion of the boiler; that is, 
in case they stand out far enough from the boiler surface. If, on 
the contrary, they do not rise very high, as exemplified in tho 
end view, fig. 9, it will be necessary to determine tho outline of 
the shadow cast by a portion of the upper edgo, b' c', as lying 
either upon the cylindrical part of tho boiler, or upon one of the 
spherical ends. To find tho shadow in this last case, we have 
supposed an imaginary vertical plane to pass through the luminous 
ray, it' o', fig. 5, producing an elliptical section of the cylinder, 
and a circular ono of tho spherical part. This plan being repro- 
duced at r 2 o 2 , fig. 9, and turned about, to coincide with the hori- 
zontal plane, wo have the curve, i"' n" n", representing the section 
in question. Tho point of contact, n', being transferred to n 2 , is 
also turned down, as it were, upon the horizontal plane, to the 



point, b 8 ; so that if we draw a line, b 9 i 2 , through this point, b', 
parallel to the luminous ray, r 8 o 8 , similarly brought into the hori- 
zontal plane, this line, b 3 i 2 , will cut the intersectional curve in the 
point, l 2 ; the horizontal projection, i 8 , of this point, upon the line, 
R 3 h 2 , being obtained by letting fall the perpendicular, I s i 8 , upon 
the latter. The corresponding point, i', in fig. 5, is taken at a dis- 
tance from b', equal to b 2 i 3 , in fig. 9. Proceed in the same manner 
with another sectional plane, parallel to the first, and passing 
through the point, c', in order to obtain a second point, c', of the 
shadow. The operations necessary for determining the intersec- 
tional curves are sufficiently indicated in figs. 5 and 9. 

369. The cylindrical steam-boiler, represented in longitudinal 
section in fig. A, in end elevation in fig. H3, and in transverse 
section in fig. ©, conjoins the various applications of shadows, of 
which we have been treating, in reference to spheres and cylin- 
ders ; whilst, at the same time, they serve as examples of shading, 
by lines or by washes, indicating the effects to be aimed at, and to 
be attained by the following out of the various principles already 
laid down. 

370. We must remind the student, that, in order to produce tnese 
effects, he must not always confine himself to the representation 
of the shadows proper and cast merely. He must, further, show 
the gradations of the light or shadow upon each part, as has already 
been explained with reference to solid and hollow cylinders. As 
upon a cylinder or a cone, there is always a line of pre-eminent 
brilliancy, so likewise, upon the surface of a sphere, will there be a 
point of greater brilliancy than the rest. 

This point is actually situated upon the luminous ray, passing 
through the centre of the sphere, fig. 1. Since, however, the visual 
rays are not coincident with the luminous rays, the apparent posi- 
tion of this point is somewhat changed. Thus, if we bring the 
vertical plane, r o, fig. 1, into the horizontal plane, the luminous 
ray will coincide, as has been seen, with the line, r' o', and, conse- 
quently, its point of intersection with the sphero will coincide with 
the point, i. On the other hand, the visual rays which are perpen- 
dicular to tho horizontal plane will coincide with parallels to c o, 
when brought into the horizontal plane. This latter line intersects 
the sphere in the point, c ; and as the light is reflected from any 
surface in the direction of the visual rays, so as to make the angle 
of incidence equal to the angle of reflection, if we divide the angle, 
toe, into two equal angles, by the line, n o, the point, ?;, will bo 
that which will appear to the eye most brilliantly illuminated. Tho 
positions, ri and i', in the vertical plane of the points, n and i. are 
obtained by letting fall perpendiculars upon the line, o a, repre- 
senting this piano. 

In shading up a drawing it is preferable to place the bright or 
lightest part between the two points, »' .-mil <", a more pleasing- efieot 
being obtained thereby. When the sphere is polished, ae a steel, 
brass, or ivory hall, a circular spot, el' [Mire while, must be leii about 

the point in question. When, however, the body is rough, as is 
supposed in fig. tii5, (his part is always lighter than the rest , hut. at 
the same time, it is covered hy a taint Wash. 

In the ease of a hollow sphere, tigs. 3 and :t. we ha\ e to hear in 
mind, not only to indicate (he position of the bright spot, which 
is projected, in the same manner, upon the luminous ray, A is, and 
lies between the points, n', i', hut also the point in the east shadow, 

U 



122 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



which should be the least prominent. This latter will be found 
to be at m\ fig. 2, as determined by the radius, o' m, fig. 3, drawn 
perpendicularly to the ray of light, a' c', as brought into the same 
plane as fig. 3. 

371. The boiler is represented as placed in its furnace, which 
is built entirely of bricks, with a diaphragm passing down the 
middle of its length, to oblige the flames and gases issuing from 
the grate to pass along the flue to the left, then to return by that 
to the right, and passing through a third flue, before it reaches 
the chimney. In this third flue is placed an auxiliary boiler, full 
of water, and in communication with the main boiler by a pipe 
passing to the bottom of each. In this auxiliary boiler, the feed- 
water becomes heated before entering the main boiler, so as not 
to reduce the temperature of the latter to a serious extent, upon 
its introduction into it. 

The main boiler is represented as half full of water. It should 
generally be two-thirds full, but is delineated as but half full ; so 
that a greater portion of the shadow cast upon its interior may be 
visible. The remainder of the space, as well as the cylindrical 
chambers, is supposed to be filled with steam. The base of the 
chimney is of stone, whilst the stalk is of brick. The foundations 
of the furnace are likewise of 6tone. 

Besides this present example of a boiler, we give a further ex- 
ercise for finished shading in Plate XXXHL, the objects in which 
we recommend the student to copy, on a scale two or three times 
as large, so as to acquire the proper skill and facility of treatment. 



SHADING IN BLACK.— SHADING IN COLOURS. 

PLATE XXXIII. 

372. In a great number of drawings, and particularly in those 
termed working drawings, and intended for use in actual construc- 
tion, the draughtsman contents himself by shading the objects 
with China ink — sometimes, perhaps, covering this with a faint 
wash of colour, appropriate to the nature of the material. The 
shading, on the one hand, brings out the parts in relief, and ren- 
ders the forms of the object intelligible to the eye; whilst, on 
the other hand, the colours indicate of what material they are 
made. This duplex artistic representation makes the drawing 
much more life-like, and more easily comprehended. A drawing 
may be coloured in several ways. The simplest plan is first to 
shade up the various surfaces with China ink, having due regard 
to the respective forces and gradations of tone, according to the 
lights and shades, as has been done in the preceding plates. The 
entire surface of each object is then covered with an especial 
wash of colour, the line of which is quite conventional. It must 
be laid on in flat washes, according to the instructions given in 
reference to Plate X. This first method of operating may suffice 
in many cases, but it leaves out much to be desired in the effective 
appearance of the drawing, its aspect being generally without 
vigour, cold and monotonous. A better result is obtainable by 
not carrying the China ink shading to so great a depth, and by 
covering the surfaces by two or three washes of colour, laid on in 
gradations, as was done with the China ink itself, so as to produce 
a sufficient strength of colour at the darker parts, whilst the light 



parts are left very faint ; and where the objects are polished, a pure 
white line or spot is left, which will add considerably to the bril- 
liancy of the whole. A softer and more harmonious effect can be 
produced by the use of a warm neutral tint, instead of the China 
ink, for the preliminary shading. This colour, however, is very 
difficult to mix, and to keep uniform. 

When a little practice has given some skill and facility in the 
preparation and combination of the colours, the draughtsman may 
proceed, at the outset, in a more direct and vigorous manner, leaving 
out altogether the preliminary shading with China ink, and laving 
on at once the successive coloured- washes, rendering, at the same 
time, the effects of light and shade, and indicating the nature of the 
material. This last method has the merit of giving to each part 
of the drawing a richer translucence, more warmth, and a more 
satisfactory fulfilment of all desirable conditions. 

In general, all drawings intended to be shaded should be deli- 
neated with faint gray instead of black, outlines, as for a simple 
outline drawing ; the faintness of such lines avoids the necessity 
of making them very fine, and their greater breadth affords a much 
better guide to the shading-brush. A black outline, however fine 
it may be, always produces a too sharp and hard appearance, whilst 
there is much greater risk of overstepping it in laying on the 
washes. 

373. In Plate XXXIII. we give a few good examples of objects 
shaded in colours, comprising the materials most in use in con- 
struction. 

Fig. 1 represents the capital of a Doric column in wood. Al- 
though the woods are naturally very different in colour, still, in 
mechanical drawings, a single tint is used indiscriminately : it is, 
as we have said, entirely conventional. 

In fixing upon these colours, the object in view has been to avoid 
confusion, and to employ a distinct and intelligible colour for 
the representation of each substance, without seeking to copy the 
natural colour in all its varieties. 

In colouring this wooden capital, after the preliminary opera- 
tions which we have mentioned, for determining the outlines of 
the shadows, proper and cast, it is first shaded throughout with 
China ink, and when this shading has reached a convenient depth, 
and is thoroughly dry, the whole surface is to be covered with a 
light wash, which may be a mixture of gamboge, lake, and China 
ink, or burnt umber alone. The colour, in fact, should be analo- 
gous to that of fig. 4, Plate X. ; it should, however, always be 
fainter than in that example, which represents the material in sec- 
tion, and is, therefore, stronger. 

This proceeding may be easily modified, and made to resemble 
the effect of the second method, by leaving certain parts of the 
object uncoloured, and by softening off the shade in those places 
where the light is>strongest, with a nearly dry .brush. If, however, 
the draughtsman has become somewhat familiarized with the use 
of the brush and the mixture of the colours, he may, as we have 
said, omit the preliminary shading in black, by modifying each 
shade as laid on, mixing the China ink directly with the colours, 
and then gradually bringing up the shades, either according to the 
system of flat washes, or the more difficult one of softened shades. 
Care must be taken in laying on these shades to commence at the 
deeper parts, and then to cover these over again by the subse- 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



123 



quent washes, which gradually approach the bright part of the 
object ; for in this way a more brilliant and translucent effect will 
be obtained. 

When the objects are of wood, it is customary to represent the 
graining in faint irregular streaks, care being taken to make these 
as varied as possible. A general idea of the effect to be produced 
will be obtained from fig. 1. 

Following out these principles, the draughtsman may proceed to 
colour various other objects composed of different materials, merely 
varying the mixtures of colour according to the instructions given 
in reference to Plate X. 

Fig. 2 represents the top of a chimney of brickwork, the form 
being circular. In this external view, the outline of each brick is 
indicated ; and to render them more distinct from each other, a 
line of reflected light has been shown on the edges towards the 
light, near the brighter part of the chimney. Indeed, it is generally 
advisable to leave a narrow, pure white light at the edges of an 
object which are fully illuminated, as it gives an effective sharp 
appearance. 

Fig. 3 represents the base of a Doric column in stone, showing 
the flutings. This being an external view, the tint to represent the 
stone is not made nearly so strong as for the sectional stone-work, 
represented in Plate X. A yellowish grey may be used for it, made 
by mixing gamboge, the predominant colour, with a little China ink, 
adding a little lake to give warmth. 

These three examples of wood, brick, and stone, represent bodies 



with rough surfaces, and which, therefore, can never receive such 
brilliant lights as objects in polished metal ; no part, indeed, should 
be entirely free from some faint colour. 

Fig. 4 represents a nut or bolt-head of wrought-iron ; and, as 
we have supposed it to be turned and planed, and polished upon 
its entire surface, it has been necessary to leave pure white lights 
at the brighter parts, to distinguish the surfaces from those which 
are rough and dull. It is the same in the example, fig. 5, repre- 
senting the base of a polished cast-iron column, and in the lateral 
projection, fig. 6, of polished brass upper and lower shaft-bearings 
o.r brasses. 

We would hope that the principles of shadows and shading, ex- 
plained and exemplified in the last two chapters, may serve as 
sufficient guides for the various applications which may present 
themselves to the draughtsman — whether his skill be called forth 
to render the simple effects of light and shadow, or to produce the 
gradations of shade and colour due to roundness or obliquity of 
surface — to the various positions of the objects in their polished or 
unpolished state, and to the various materials of which they may 
be composed. 

Thus, it will be understood, that although two objects are pre- 
cisely alike in material and form, if they are situated at unequal 
distances from the spectator, the nearer one of the two must be 
coloured more strongly and brilliantly than the more distant, more 
force and depth being given to the darker shades. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE CUTTING AND SHAPING OF MASONRY. 

PLATE XXXIV. 



374. The operation of stone-cutting has for its object, the pre- 
paring and shaping stones in such manner that they may be built 
up into any desired form in a compact and solid manner ; great 
care and skill, as well as mathematical knowledge, is moro parti- 
cularly required in the preparation of stones for arches, vaults, 
arcades, and such like structures. 

The study of the^haping of stones is based entirely upon descrip- 
tive geometry, being indeed but a particular application or branch 
«>f it, and in it have to be considered the generation of surfaces, as 
well as their intersections and developments. 

In proceeding to adapt the stones to the position they are to 
occupy, the mason should prepare a preliminary drawing of tlio 
actual size of each stone, as well as a general view of the entire 
erection, indicating the joints of each stone ; these, according to 
the various positions to be occupied by them, are called key stones, 
arch stones, &c. 

It is not our intention to givo a complete treatise on the shaping 

of masonry; but, as this study seems to belong, in part, I" ge< - 

trical drawing, we have thought it quite within (lie design of the 
present work to give a few applications, sufficient toshoti the line 
ofpiocedure to be followed out in operations of this nature. 



the marseilles arch, or arriere-voussure. 
Figures 1 and 2. 

375. We propose to prepare the designs for the bay and arch 
of a door or window, to be built of stonework, the upper part 
being cut away, so as to present a twisted surface, analogous to 
that known as tlio arriere-voussure of Marseilles. 

This surface is such as would be generated by a straight lino, 
c a, kept constantly upon the horizontal, c' k', projected vertically 
in tho point, c, and moved, on the one hand, upon the semi-base, 
B E D, of a right cylinder, having c' k' for its axis ; and, on the 
Other, upon the circular arc, f k a, situated in a plane parallel to 
that of the base, bed. 

Tho lateral faces, fbu and a R q I), of the bay, are vertical, 
and aro projected horizontally in r' b' and a' d', fig. '2. Those 
faces intersect the twisted surface at the curves, r b and a d. which 

we shall proceed to determine. 

For this purpose, the first thing to he done is to seek the pro- 
jections of the straight generator lino. c a. as occupying different 
positions, so as to obtain their points of Intersection with one of 

the oblique planes. 



124 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



We may remark, that if the arc, rKA.be prolonged to the right, 
for example, of fig. 1, and a number of lines be drawn through the 
point, c, as c J, c a, c b, and c g, they will represent so many ver- 
tical projections of the generatrix, c a, in different positions. 
These straight lines meet the semicircle, b e d, in the points, i, c, d, e, 
which are projected horizontally in the points, i', c, d', e'. These 
same lines also cut the circular are, f a g, in the points, J, a, b, g, 
which are projected upon the line, f' g', the horizontal projection 
of this line, in the points, j', a', b', g'. By drawing lines through 
these last, and through those first obtained, i', c', d', e', we obtain 
the straight lines, c 2 j', c 3 a', c* b', c 6 g', which are the horizontal 
projections of the generatrix, c a, and correspond to the vertical 
projections in fig. 1. 

These straight lines cut the plane, a' d', in the points, m'/' i', 
which are then projected vertically to M,/, i, upon the straight lines, 
c j, c a, c b ; the curve, a n/ i d, passing through each of theso 
points, is the line of intersection sought, and it is reproduced sym- 
metrically at f b, to the left hand of fig. I, so as to avoid the neces- 
sity of repeating the diagram. 

To obtain this line of intersection full size, it is necessary to 
bring the plane, d' a', into the plane of the picture, by supposing 
it to turn about the vertical, d q, projected horizontally in d', as an 
axis ; during this movement, each of the points, a', m', /', will 
describe an arc of a circle about the centre, d', finally coinciding 
with the points, si 2 , a 2 , / 2 , and i 2 . Through the corresponding 
points, a, M,/, i, in"the vertical projection, we must draw a series 
of horizontal lines, a a", m m",//", upon which, square over the 
preceding points, m 2 , a 2 ,/ 2 , i 2 , by which means will be obtained the 
curve, a" m"/" d, representing the exact form or parallel projection 
of the line of intersection. 

376. The preliminary design thus sketched out, gives nothing 
but the outline of the surface of the erection, and it now remains 
to divide it into a certain number of parts, to represent the indivi- 
dual stones of which it is to be built up. 

The number of divisions necessarily depends upon the nature of 
the material and sizes of stone at the mason's disposal ; the number 
should, however, in all cases, be an odd one, so that a central 
space may be reserved for the principal piece, known as the key- 
stone. 

The divisions are struck upon the semicircle, b e d, by a series 
of radii converging in the centre, c ; it is these lines which repre- 
sent the divisions of the stones. Below the arched part, the regular 
pieces, as X, consist of a series of stones of equal dimensions, the 
joints of which are horizontal. 

The horizontal projections of each of the stones forming the arch 
are straight lines, because the joints lie in planes perpendicular to 
the vertical plane, whose intersection with the twisted surface is 
always a straight line corresponding to a generatrix ; thus, the 
planes, o c and p c, of the joints on either side of the key-stone, k, 
are perpendicular to the vertical plane, and pass through the axis, 
c' k' ; and the portions of them, n h and o I, comprised between the 
directing circles, bed and f k a, are represented in the horizontal 
projection by the straight lines, n' h' and o' I', which are the joints 
of the stones as seen from below — that is, the lines of their inter- 
section with the twisted surface. 

It is the same with the planes, m c and j c, in which lie the 



joints of the corner stones, t z ; the portions, k g and i i*., of the 
joints falling upon the twisted surface, are likewise projected hori- 
zontally at the straight lines, k 1 g' and m' if. 

377. The design of the erection being thus completed, the shaper 
should delineate each individual stone as detached from the arch, 
in such a manner as to represent all the faces of the joints, and he 
then takes for each, a stone of the most convenient dimensions 
from amongst those at his disposal, which are generally hewn out 
roughly in the shape of rectangular parallelopipeds ; on each of 
these pieces he marks off the parts to be cut away, to reduce the 
stone to the required form and dimensions. 

Thus, supposing he commences with the key-stone, k, for ex- 
ample, detailed in front view and vertical section through the 
middle, in figs. 3 and 4; he takes a parallelopiped, of which the 
base, p q r s, is capable of circumscribing the two parallel faces of 
the upper part of the key-stone, and of which the height is at least 
equal to the length, t u'. After having cut and finished the two 
vertical faces, t' d and u' v, of the prism, as well as the horizontal 
face, t' u', he measures off upon the anterior face, fig. 3, the parallel 
and vertical sides, I o and u f, and then the oblique lines, o h and 
F I, which, it will be remembered, converge to the same point, c, 
the axis of the voussure. He next sets off upon a template the 
arcs, no and h I, fig. 1, and reproduces them thence upon the paral- 
lelopiped, fig. 3, at n o and h I. After this preliminary marking 
out, the stonecutter reduces and takes away all the material upon 
the sides of the parallelopiped which lies outside the lines, o h and 
p I ; these faces being finished, the shape-designer lays out upon 
them the lines projected at n li and o I. In order that the form of 
this joint may be more easily comprehended, we have brought the 
face, p I, into the plane of the picture, representing it in fig. 4*', as 
parallel to the plane of projection. 

This view, it will be seen, is easily obtained ; for, on the one 
hand, we have the line, f' y, equal to k k 2 , representing the thick- 
ness of the wall or of the arch ; and, on the other hand, all the 
other dimensions, as projected horizontally in fig. 2, so that the 
inclination of the line, d I', can be determined with the most rigor- 
ous exactness. 

This straight line, as well as the corresponding one on the op- 
posite face, o h, serves as a guide to the stonecutter in reducing 
the twisted portion of the surface of the key-stone, comprised be- 
tween them ; and as affording a means of verification, it may be 
remarked, that this surface should be cut in such a manner, that a 
rule or straight edge may be applied to all parts of it, being guided 
by the arcs, n o and h I ; the former of which springs from the 
point, o', and the latter from the point, I', on the face, p' x, 
fig. 4 s *. 

To determine the faces of the joints of either of the two corner 
pieces, z, represented in detail, and detached in figs. 5 and 6, but 
on which the faces are not represented in their full dimensions, it 
is necessary to proceed in the same manner as before, bringing 
each face into the plane of projection— that is, delineating auxiliary 
views of them, as if parallel to this plane. 

Thus, to obtain the actual dimensions of the face of the joint 
projected at o li, with the point, w, as a centre, describe a series* of 
arcs, with the respective radii, o u; n ic, h w, so as to reproduce the 
points, o, n, h, at o\ n 2 , h\ upon the vertical, o 2 tv; then, by setting 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



126 



off, h? h', equal to n' h', fig. 2, and joining the points, h' ri', fig. 7, 
we get the inclination of the generatrix line, ri 1 h', which is project- 
ed vertically at n h, fig. 1. The form of the joint face is completed 
by drawing the horizontal lines, o a w , li' z', y' v', and the verticals, 
u' v' and z' y', which last are already given full size in fig. 6. It 
will be observed that fig. 7 is on the plate removed a little to the 
right of the vertical, o 3 w ; but this is a matter of no importance, and 
is merely done for convenience sake. 

The same system of auxiliary projections is applicable to the 
determination of the dimensions of the other face of this piece — 
namely, that projected at m g, which is brought round to the hori- 
zontal, m? g*, and drawn with full dimensions in fig. 8 ; only, for 
this last face, it is necessary to bear in mind the portion of the line 
of intersection of the sides with the arched part which it contains, 
and which is obtained in its actual proportions, as at a? m\ by 
means of a template formed to the curve, a" m", in fig. 1. The 
stone, T, beneath, of course, contains the remainder of the inter- 
sectional curve. 

The methods just explained, in regard to the shaping of the key- 
stone and one of the corner-stones, may be extended, without diffi- 
culty, to the remaining portions of this Marseilles arch. 

In this application it has been necessary to determine the propor- 
tions of the twisted bay of the arch, as well as the faces of the 
joints ; but in the more general case of straight bays, such as that 
represented in fig. V, the operations are considerably simplified, 
and the designer has merely to attend to the form of the joint faces, 
making use, for this purpose, of the auxiliary projections, as above 
described. The delineation of the various parts of this figure pre- 
senting no new peculiarity, it need not further detain us. 

378. Let it be proposed to delineate a circular vault with a full 
centering, bounded by two plane surfaces oblique to its axis, figs. 
9 and 10. This example is taken from the entrance to the tunnel 
on the Strasbourg Railway, near the Paris terminus, and it is a form 
frequently met with in the construction of railways. 

In the representation of this vault, we have supposed one of the 
oblique planes to be parallel to the vertical plane of projection, and 
it consequently follows that the axis of the arch is inclined to this 
plane. 

Let a b be this axis, and c d the horizontal projection of a 
plane at right angles to it; with the point, b, as a centre, describe 
the semicircle, cad, representing the arch in its true proportions, 
as brought into the plane of the picture. Let us suppose this 
semicircle to be divided into some uneven number of equal parts, 
as in the points, a, b, c, d, e,f; through each of these points draw 
straight lines, passing also through the centre, b, and representing 
the joints, a g, b h, c i, of the arch stones, being, of course, normal 
to the circular curvature of the arch, and being limited in depth, as 
we shall suppose, by the second outer semicircle, g i Z, concentric 
with the first. Each of these joint feces intersects the centering 
of the arch in a straight line parallel with its axis, and the horizon- 
tal projections of these intersections, as seen from below, arc ob- 
tained simply by drawing through the points, a, b,C, d, lines parallel 
to the axis, b a; these last extend as far as the vertical plane, a e, 
which bounds a portion of the vault. The external faces of the 
key and arch stones are limited by straight vertical lines, such as 
m h, i H, OJ, and horizontals, as in i and n o. 



We have now to obtain the projections on the vertical plane, 
fig. 10, of the intersection of each of the arch stones by the plane, 

A E. 

We may remark, in the first place, that since this plane is 
oblique to the axis of the cylindrical arch, it produces an elliptical 
section, having for its semi-transverse axis the length, c' a, and for 
its semi-conjugate axis, the length, a b , equal to the radius, a' b. 
As much of this ellipse as is required is drawn according to one 
or other of the many methods given (53, et seq.) — say as at c' b 3 b' 
fig. 9, which curve is reproduced at c" b" a", in the elevation, 
fig. 10. . 

If we, in like manner, obtain the projection of the semicircle, f i I, 
which limits the radial joints, we shall also obtain the portion of an 
ellipse, f" g" i", and we have further merely to project the points, 
a', b', c', upon the first ellipse, in a" b" c" ; as also on the second 
one, the points, g", ~h", i", corresponding to g h and i. The straight 
lines, f" c", g" a", h" b", i" c", represent the intersections of the 
faces of the arch stone joints, with the plane, a e. 

The vault being supposed to extend no further back than the 
plane, c D, it will be necessary to represent the intersection of this 
last with the arch stones which extend thus far upon this plane, 
c d. We have, therefore, to project the elliptic curves, c'" b'" c'" 
and f'" g'" i'", corresponding to the quarter circles of the radii, 
F B and c b. As the arch stones cannot extend the entire length 
of the vault, they are limited by planes, M n, perpendicular to the 
axis, and, consequently, parallel to c D. so that the projections of 
these joints will be but repetitions of portions of the same elliptic 
curve ; care is taken so to dispose the blocks of stone, that no two 
joints form a continuous line, the joints in one course being brought 
between those in the adjacent ones, as is customary in all brick and 
stone work. 

379. We have now to determine the intersection of the oblique 
plane, a g, with the remaining half of the same circular vault, and 
then to obtain the projection of this intersection upon the vertical 
plane. 

The plane, a g, also produces an elliptical section of the vault; 
this is represented at g' gt, as brought into the picture in the auxiliary 
diagram, fig. 11, which gives its actual proportions; the semi-trans- 
verse axis, g' o, of this ellipse is equal to G a, and its semi-conjugate 
axis is equal to the radius, a' b, of the vault. 

After having divided this curve into a certain uneven number of 
equal parts, draw normals* p v, q r, r x; s y, and t z, through the 
points of division representing the joints of the arch stones, the 
remaining sides of the external laces of which are limited by hori- 
zontals and verticals, as before. 

If the vault is supposed not to extend beyond tho plane. \ 0, 
the arch stones will have to be shaped as feeing stones, and their 
joints will require to be set off upon the first ellipse, c;' </ /. ami to 
be limited by the second, ll' q' /', obtained from the intersections! 
plane, n i, drawn parallel to a g ; by drawing atraighl lines from 

the points of division obtained upon the ellipse, c.'qt, to the centre, 
O, we obtain the points, p», q\ /''', s\ of intersection o( these lines 

upon the second ellipse, and the straighl lines, pjr\ gg*,rf\ss , l re- 
presenting the intersections of the arch stones with the inside o( the 

• a Una t* unlit to lu- normal to :i ourvo, «rh»o K ti pwptndloulti lo i\ t uuitat i» 
li,, oui n> dmiIoi through u> i»>i"t oi IdUtmoUod with tltt ourvt 



126 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



vault ; these straight lines are projected horizontally in p' p", q' q", 
r' r", &c., fig. 9, where they are visible, because the diagram is 
supposed to be a projection of the vault, as seen from below ; the 
two diagrams, figs. 9 and 11, will render the determination of the 
vertical projection, fig. 10, very easy, the same lines there being 
designated by the same letters. 

To limit the arch facing stones, and unite them conveniently with 
the regular courses of the vault, they must be cut by planes, such 
as j k and l p, fig. 9, perpendicular to the axis, a b. The intersec- 
tions of these planes with the vault produce portions of circles, which 
are projected as ellipses in fig. 11, such as l' q 3 v and u' r 2 x', for 
the inside of the vault, and j' q r' and l' s' p', for their outer ex- 
tremities, these various ellipses corresponding to the radii, c b and 
F b. The joints of these stones are finally completed by planes, 
such as k' p" s Q, fig. 1 1, passing through the axis, a b, and through 
horizontal lines, t' z' and o s, in the vault, the latter and inner one 
of which only is visible in the elevation, fig. 10. 

380. In constructing this vault, it is necessary to make detailed 
drawings of each particular stone, showing the dimensions of all the 
faces. In figs. 12 to 15, we have represented one of these arch 
stones, ©, in plan and elevation, as detached from the erection, fig. 
10, and showing more particularly such lines as are not apparent in 
fig. 11. Thus, in these views may be distinguished: — 

1st. The anterior face, v q r x, which is projected horizontally 
upon the line of the plane, a g ; this face, it will be remembered, 
intersects the vault at the elliptic curve projected at q r. 

2d. The face of the joint, xrr 3 w, of which the one edge, x r, is 
projected upon the same plane, g a, at x' r\ whilst the opposite 
edge, w r 3 , is projected upon the line, v" r", parallel to g a ; and 
the lower edge, r r 3 , the line of intersection of this face with the 
interior of the vault, is projected in the line, / r", whilst, finally, the 
upper and fourth edge, x w, is projected at x' vtf. 

3d. The second joint face, v q q 3 w, is opposite to the first, and 
projected at v' q" q* \v. 

4th. The face, q s z t, the horizontal projection of which is 
Q' s' z' y' ; this face is situated in a plane passing through the axis 
of the vault, and is additionally represented in the diagram, fig. 14, 
on the radius, p q". 

5th. The species of dovetail joint, q f y z r 3 r, of which the 
edges, q q 3 and r r\ are projected, as has been seen, at q q* and 
r* r" ; whilst the sides, q r and z r 3 , are similarly projected at q 1 r 
and z' r", and finally the side, q 3 y at q* y'. 

6th. Lastly, the posterior face, q, of which it will be easy to 
render an account by means of the distinctive letters, which are 
invariably the same for the same points, although additional special 
marks are superadded to obviate confusion amongst the various 
figures. To render this vertical projection more intelligible, we 
nave added the subsidiary view, fig. 14, representing the projection 
of the block in the plane, l p, as brought into the plane of the 
picture ; we have thus the actual proportions of the faces projected 
in the planes, s' r" and p' q". To obtain the various points seen in 
this view, it is sufficient to set off the vertical distances from the 
line, g o, of the elevation, figs. 11 and 13, obtaining in. this man- 
ner, for instance, the points, r", q 3 , v\ x 3 , &c, corresponding to 
r 3 , q 3 , v, and x. 

The examples chosen for this plate (XXXIV.) combine the more 



difficult problems and applications met with in the shaping and 
arrangement of stonework, and will make the student acquainted 
with the operations upon which designs for these purposes are 
based, as well as with the general methods to be adopted in obtain- 
ing oblique projections by the employment of auxiliary projections, 
taken, as it were, in planes parallel to the different surfaces, and 
then brought into the plane of the picture ; this system, at the same 
time, being of much use in ascertaining the exact proportions of 
various surfaces, such as the joints of masonry. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

HYDRAULIC MOTORS. 

381. The fall of a stream of water varies with the locality, and 
gives rise to the employment of different kinds of hydraulic motors, 
which are denominated as follows, according to their several pe- 
culiarities. 

First, Undershot water-wheels, which receive the water below 
their centres, and the buckets or floats of which pass through an 
enclosed circular channel, at the part where the water acts upon 
them. 

Second, Overshot water-wheels, which receive the water from 
above. 

Third, Wheels with vertical axes, known as turbines, and which 
are capable of working at various depths. 

Fourth, Water-wheels, with plane floats or buckets, receiving 
the water below their centres, and working in enclosed channels, 
through a portion of their circumference. 

Fifth, Similar wheels, with curved buckets. 

Sixth, Hanging wheels, mounted on barges, and suspended in 
the current. 

UNDERSHOT WATER-WHEELS, WITH PLANE FLOATS AND A 
CIRCULAR CHANNEL. 

382. The most advantageous arrangement that can be adopted 
in the construction of an undershot water-wheel, with plane floats, 
and working in an enclosed circular channel, is that in which the 
outlet is formed by an overshot sluice-gate, and when the bottom 
of this outlet is -2 to - 25 m., or about 8 inches, below the general 
level of the reservoir. 

Let it be required to determine the width of an undershot water- 
wheel, with the following data : — 

First, The discharge of water is 1.200 litres per second. 

Second, The height of the fall is 2-475 metres. 

Third, The depth of the water at the sluice-gate is to be -23 m. 

WTDTH OF THE WHEEL. 

It will be seen, in the table at page 113, that, with an outlet of 
•23 in depth, a discharge can be effected of 188 litres of water per 
second, for a width of 1 metre ; consequently, the width to be 
given to the sluice, to enable it to discharge 1,200 litres per second, 
should be — 

1200 -^ 188 = 6-38 metres. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



127 



DIAMETER OF THE WHEEL. 

383. The diameter to be given to a wheel of this description has 
not been accurately determined, because it has not a direct influence 
upon the useful effect that may be obtained from it. Nevertheless, 
it is manifest that it should not be too small ; for in that case the 
water would be admitted too nearly in the horizontal line passing 
through the centre, or even above it, which would cause great loss 
of power. Neither should it be too great, for in that case the ex- 
aggerated dimensions would but involve an increased bulk and 
weight, and, consequently, a greater load and more friction, without 
any compensating advantage. 

In general, for a fall of from 2 to 3 metres, it is advisable to make 
the extreme radius of the wheel at least equal to the mean height 
of the fall, augmented by twice the depth of the water upon the 
edge of the outlet. 

Thus, in the case before us, the height of the fall being limited 
to 2-475 m., the outer radius of the wheel should not be less than 
2-475 m. plus twice the depth of the overflowing body of water 
when at its fullest — say -6 m. ; that is to say, in all, 3-075 m., which 
corresponds to a diameter of 6" 15 metres. 

Water-wheels, on the same system, with a fall of water of from 
2-6 to 2-7 metres, have often an extreme diameter no greater than 
this. 

VELOCITY OF THE WHEEL. 

384. Theoretically speaking, the velocity which it is convenient 
to give to an undershot water-wheel should be equal to half that 
due to the height of the overflow of the water ; that is to say, equal 
to from r to 1-1 m. in the present case. Nevertheless, practice 
shows that this rule may be departed from without inconvenience, 
and the wheel may be made to attain a velocity of from 1'5 to 1 '6 m. 
per second at pleasure, which is a very great advantage in many 
circumstances. 

If the wheel makes three turns per minute, the mean velocity at 

the outer circumference, and at the edges of the floats, will be — 

6-15 x 3-1416 x 3 

^t = T021 m. per second. 

Thus, when the height of the overflow is -24 m., the correspond- 
ing velocity of the water being 2-17 m. nearly, as shown in the 
table at page 94, which gives the heights, 23-56 and 24-67 cent., 
therefore, the ratio of the velocity of the wheel to that of the water 
is -47 : 1. 

If the height of tho overflow were reduced to -15 m., which sup- 
poses that the discharge would only be 

101 litres x 6-32 m. = 638 litres per second, 
the corresponding velocity of the water would not be more than 
1-72; and in this case, tho ratio of the velocity of the wheel, sup- 
posing it to be still tho same, to that of the water, would be — 
•595 : 1. 

NUMBER AND CAPACITY OF THF, BUCKETS. 

385. Although tho number of buckets cannot be determined in 
accordance with any exact rule, it is, nevertheless, of importance 
that their pitch should not lie much greater than the depth) or 
thickness, of the overflowing body of water acting upon them. It 



is also necessary that the number of the buckets should be divisible 
by that of the arms of the wheel, so that the whole may be put 
together conveniently. 

Now, since the outer circumference of the wheel is 
6-15 x 3-1416= 19-32 metres, 
we can very conveniently give it 8 arms and 64 buckets ; and the 
pitch of these last will be -32 m. With this distance between the 
buckets, there should not generally be a greater depth of overflow 
than -25 or -26 m. ; because, at -27 m. the water will begin to choke, 
as it will not be admitted easily into the buckets, and will rebound 
against the interior of the channel, giving rise to a continual shak- 
ing action. 

Thus, then, in determining the number of buckets for an under- 
shot water-wheel, receiving the water from an overshot outlet, it is 
necessary to calculate the spaces between them, so as to be about 
a third, or at least a fourth, greater than the depth of the water at 
the outlet, whilst their number must be divisible by the number of 
arms of the wheel. 

For water-wheels of from 3-5 to 4-75 metres in diameter, six 
arms for each rim or shrouding ; for wheels of 5 to 7 metres in 
diameter, there should always be eight arms for each shrouding ; 
and the number of arms should obviously increase for wheels of 
greater diameters than 7 metres, of which, however, there are but 
few examples. 

With regard to the capacity of the buckets, and the channel, 
taken together, it should be equal to at least double the volume of 
water discharged. Therefore, on this basis, we can always easily 
determine the depth to be given to the buckets, when the maximum 
discharge is known. 

Thus allowing, in the present instance, the maximum discharge 
to be 1,340 litres per second, instead of 1,200, since tho velocity at 
the outer circumference is 1-021 m. per second, the number of 
buckets contained in this space is equal to 
1021 -f- -32 =319. 
Then— 

1-340 -J- 3-19 = "43 cubic metres nearly, 
the quantity which should be in each bucket during the revolution 
of the wheel. If, then, the capacity is to be double this, it will bo 
equal to -86 cubic metres. The product, however, of the width, 
638 m., of the wheel, multiplied by the space between two consecu- 
tive buckets, -32 m., is equal to 2-022 m. 

We have, then, -86 -r- 2022 = -42 m., for tho depth of the 
buckets. The distance between the buckets, however, is not tho 
same at tho inside as at the extremities, and the capacity is also 
further diminished by tho thickness of the sides of the buckets, and 
by the inner portions, which make an angle of 45° with the outer 
portions. For these reasons, the depth should be somewhat 
increased. When tho discharge of water is considerable, and we 
are limited as to the width of the wheel, it is preferable to do away 

with the inner inclined portion of the buckets, as indicated in tlio 
drawing, Plate WW I., prolonging them considerably towards 
the centre of the wheel. 

or Tin: w \ ; i i;-w ECBSL. 
886. The absolute force of a stream of water is tho product 

of the water discharged per second, expressed in kilogrammes, by 



128 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the height of the fall expressed in metres, or the weight in pounds 
by the height in feet. 

Thus, when the discharge is 1 300 litres or kilog. per second, and 
the total height of the fall 2-475 m., the product of 1300 kilog. by 
2 - 475 m. expresses in kilogranimetres the absolute force ; this may 
be converted into horses-power by dividing the result by 75 : we 
have, -therefore — 
1300 x 2-475 = 3217 km., and 3217 -f- 75 = 43 horses-power. 

Undershot water-wheels, with plane-bottomed buckets and circu- 
lar channels, when well constructed, are capable of utilizing from 
70 to 75 per cent, of the absolute force of a stream of water. 

OVERSHOT WATER-WHEELS. 

387. Let it be proposed to construct a water-wheel to receive the 
water from above, under the following circumstance: — 

1st. The effective vertical height of the fall, or the distance 
between the upper and lower level, is 4-56 m., without sensible 
variation. 

2d. The quantity of water discharged per second is supposed to 
be almost uniform, and is measured by a vertical sluice-gate, with 
complete contraction at the outlet. 

3d. The width of the sluice-gate is -5 m., the height of the open- 
ing -14 m., and the charge or height of the reservoir level above 
the centre of the outlet, -55 m. 

Solution. — From the table at page 111, of the discharges of 
water, we find that 280 litres per second is the quantity which 
escapes at an orifice -14 m. in height, by 1 metre wide ; and with 
a pressure upon the centre due to a height of -55 m., we have, con- 
sequently, 

280 x -5 = 140 litres. 
This discharge being known, if we are not limited to any parti- 
cular width of wheel, it may be constructed thus, for it gives 
as great a useful effect as can be expected in ordinary circum- 
stances. 

In such case, the velocity, v, should be regulated to about one 
metre per second at the circumference, because the advantage that 
might result from a less velocity would be counterbalanced by the 
consequent increase in the width of the wheel. 

If we adopt the velocity, v, of 1 metre, we find that V, of the 
water, at its point of escape from the outlet, should be 2 metres per 
second, to act with proper effect upon the buckets ; now it will be 
seen in the table, at page 94, that tins velocity corresponds to a 
height of -205 m. above the centre of the orifice. 

This height has to be deducted from the total fall. 

For small discharges of water, it is advisable to make the height 
of the orifice as small as possible, so that the depth of the water 
may be trifling, which will permit of its entering the buckets much 
more freely : it may be taken at -06 m., or H = -06 m. 

The half of this height, or -03 m., must be added to the first 
•205 m., to give the whole height of the water in the duct behind 
the outlet ; that is, from the upper level to the lower edge of the 
orifice. 

Taking also -01 for the extent of the trifling fall of the small 
spout reaching from the front of the outlet to the top of the 
wheel, and -01 m. for the play-space which may be supposed to 
exist between the end of the spout and the latter; after deduct- 



ing all these quantities from the total fall, namely, 4-56, we shall 
have remaining — 

4-56 — (-205 + -03 + -01 + -01) = 4-305 m. 
for the extreme diameter, d, of the wheel. 

The channel which conducts the water to the wheel, and the 
width of the outlet orifice, should be disposed as much as possible, 
so that it may not meet with contraction from the lateral or bottom 
edges of the sluice-gate. Referring again to the table on page 
111, the discharge, 140 litres, must be divided by the number 75, 
corresponding to the height -06 m., and to the charge - 2 m. ; 
it must also be divided by the coefficient, 1-125, when we shall 
have — ■ 

— -i- 1125 = 1-66 m. 
75 

for the width of the outlet orifice. 

By adding -1 m. to this, we have T76 m. for the width of the 
wheel. 

The depth of the buckets is determined thus : — 
1 x -140 m. 



d = 



= 214 m. 



3 x 1-78 m. x 1 m. 

consequently, the internal diameter, d, of the wheel becomes— 

d' = 4-305 — (-214 x 2) = 3-877 m. 

By augmenting this depth about a fifth, which will make it 

•257 m., we get the distance to be allowed between the buckets ; 

so that, as the internal circumference is equal to — 

3-14 x 3-877 = 12-174 m., 

dividing this by -257, it becomes 

12-174 
■ »-_ = 47 - 3 ; say 47 buckets. 

For a water-wheel, however, of 4-305 metres in extreme diameter, 
there should be eight arms ; and if it is intended to make the 
shroudings of cast-iron, and- in segments, it is advisable that the 
number of buckets be divisible by 8 ; it will, therefore, be convenient 
to have 48 instead of 47, and in this case the space allowed be- 
tween each will be reduced to — 

12-174 -=- 48 = -254 m. 

It now merely remains to draw the wheel ; for this purpose, the 
concentric internal and external circles are described with the de- 
termined radii : the first is then to be divided into 48 equal parts, 
and radii are drawn through each point of division, as indicated in 
Plate XXXVI. ; on each of these, outward from the internal 
circle, is marked off a distance equal to a little more than half the 
depth of the buckets, say -12 m., to indicate the bottoms of the 
buckets. 

The water-wheel, when constructed in this manner, may give 
off 79 or 80 per cent, of the absolute force of the fall of water. 
Now this force, expressed in horses-power, is equal to — 
140 x 4-56 



75 



= 8-51 horses-power. 



Deducting 5 or 6 per cent, at the most, for the friction of water- 
wheel shaft in its bearings, we may still calculate, with certainty, 
that the power utilized and transmitted by this wheel will be equal 
to 74 or 75 per cent., or 

8-51 x -75 = 6-38 horses-power. 

The number of revolutions which this wheel should make per 
minute is — 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



129 



60 ~ 4-305 x 3-14 = 444, 
since its velocity, v, is 1 metre per second, or 60 metres per 
minute. 

In tracing out the preceding solution, it will have been seen that 
the width to be given to the wheel is l - 76 m. ; a much less width 
might have been obtained, by making the wheel revolve foster, and 
by augmenting the velocity of the water also. Let us suppose, for 
example, that the question has to be solved on the hypothesis, that 
the velocity of the water-wheel is to be 1*5, instead of 1 metre, per 
second; it will then be necessary, in order that the water may 
escape from the orifice at double this- velocity, that it be equal to 3 
metres per second. 

For this velocity, the height of the upper level, above the centre 
of the orifice, should be -46 m. 

Allowing -06 m. for the height of the open part of the sluice-gate, 

the whole height above the wheel will be 

•46 + -03 + -02 — -51 metres; 

consequently, the outer diameter of the latter should be 

d = 4-56 — -51 = 4-05 metres, 

the width of the sluice-gate, or 

•140 , „ ,, 

w = = I'll metres, 

•06 x 3 x -7 

End consequently the width of the wheel 

= 1-11 + -10 = 1-21 metres. 

This width, it will be seen, is considerably less than that first 
calculated. This wheel, however, which is narrower, and revolves 
at the rate of 1*5 metres per second, will not be capable of trans- 
mitting so great a useful effect, by four or five per cent. Never- 
theless, it may be preferable in many circumstances to adopt this 
lesser width, either to render the wheel lighter and less costly in 
construction, or to avoid the necessity of much intermediate gear 
between the wheel and the machinery to be actuated. Thus, it is 
evident that this wheel should make 

(60 x 1-5) -=- (4-305 x 3-14) = 6-66 revolutions per minute, 
whilst the first wheel only made 4-44. 

The other parts of the wheel are proportioned according to the 
above rules ; they will, however, differ but slightly from those of 
the first wheel. 

The proportions of the water-wheel might still be otherwise 
modified ; thus, the depth of water at the outlet might be allowed 
to be greater than that taken for a basis in the preceding cal- 
culations. Thus, the outlet might be opened to the height of 
•1 m. instead of only "06 m. : in this caso, the width of the outlet 
and of the wheel would be much less. But this arrangement 
would havo many disadvantages, for it would be necessary to make 
the buckets moro open ; that is to say, the anglo made by the 
outer portion of the bottom of the bucket with the tangent to the 
circumference passing through its extremity, instead of being 15° 
or 16°, as is usual, would havo to be 30° or 32°; the buckets 
would havo to bo doeper and more capacious ; they would empty 
themselves sooner: from all which causes would follow a decrease 
in the useful effect given out, which might reach even to 15 per 
cent. 

It is true, on tho other band, that the width of the outlet would 
be reduced to 1 metre, supposing the wheel to revolve at the 



rate of 1 metre per second, and that it would not be more than 
•67 m. when the wheel revolves at the rate of 1-5 m. per second ; 
in which case, the depth of the buckets would be about -34, and 
the spaces between them - 4 m. each. 

It will be easily conceived that such an arrangement cannot be 
advantageously adopted, except where there is plenty of water to 
spare, and when the constructor is limited as to the width of the 
wheel. 

-WATER-WHEELS WITH RADIAL FLOATS. 

388. In old mills we sometimes meet with water-wheels which 
have plane floats placed radially, working in straight inclined chan- 
nels, with a vertical outlet more or less distant from the centre of 
the wheel. 

These wheels generally give out 25 to 35 per cent, of useful 
effect of the absolute force of the stream. In them the floats are 
three or four centimetres clear of the sides of the channel ; when 
a greater space than this is allowed, the useful effect is sensibly 
diminished. Generally, the width of such wheels is equal to that 
of the outlet. 

At the present day, water-wheels are never constructed with 
plane floats arranged in this way. When a wheel is required to 
have a great velocity, it is preferable to construct it to work in an 
enclosed circular channel, and to receive the water from above, or 
from an orifice with a sufficient column above it, to give the propor- 
tionate velocity to the water. 

Such wheels are constructed in the same manner and with the 
same care as undershot water-wheels ; in fact, they do not differ 
from the latter, except in that these receive the water from an open- 
topped or overshot duct. The useful effect given out by them 
varies from 40 to 50 per cent., according as the sluice-^ate is more 
or less near to the upper level of the water. Thus, the nearer the 
channel approaches to the upper level, the more like the wheel 
becomes to a common undershot one, and, in consequence, the use- 
ful effect is greater. 

In the construction of a water-wheel of this kind, the same rules 
are followed as are already laid down for common undershot wheels 
with open outlets. 

Thus, let it be proposed to construct a wheel for a fall of T75 
metres, and with a discharge of 440 litres of water per second ; let 
the centre of the outlet orifice be at -4 m. below the upper level, 
and tho height of the orifice itself, - 15 m. 

By referring to tho table on page 111, it will be seen that tho 

discharge of water through an orifice, under these circumstances, is 

255 litres per second for a width of one metre, and it will therefore 

be evident that tho wheel should have 

410 

Zkf = 1 ' 72 metres in width. 

The velocity of the water at tho sluice-gate, corresponding to 
the column of -l m., is 2*802 per second ; consequently, it' we make 
the velocity of the wheel equal to -55 times that of the water, it 

will be 

2-802 x -55 = 1-51 metres per second. 

The diameter of the wheel is oi' itself o matter of indifference ; 

it should be reduced as much OS possible, so :is to leases the cost 
Of ci >nst nil li.Mi , notwithstanding, it should never he less than luuo 



130 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the whole height of the fall ; thus, in the present example, it 
should not be less than 4 metres. 

It has often been asserted that the power is increased by in- 
creasing the diameter ; it seems incontrovertible, however, that the 
power transmitted must be in proportion to the height of the fall, 
and to the quantity of water discharged. If the diameter of the 
wheel is increased, the angular or rotative velocity is diminished, 
and, consequently, the momentum and actual force communicated 
remain the same. 

Taking the diameter at 4 metres, we have 

■ — — = 7*2, the number of revolutions per minute. 

4 x 3-1416 

If a wheel of this diameter were adapted to an open-topped or 

overshot duct, with a depth of water at the sluice-gate equal to 

•2 m., the velocity of the water being then reduced to 1-981 metres, 

the velocity at the circumference of the wheel would not be more 

than 

1-981 x -55 = 1-09 m., 

and, consequently, the number of turns only 

1-09 x 60 
4 x 3 . 1416 = 5-2 per minute. 

But then, as the discharge in such case, at an overshot outlet of 

■2 m. in depth and 1 metre in width, is 166 litres per second (see 

table, page 113), the width of the wheel must be made equal to 

440 „„ , A 
, „. = 2-7 metres. 
loo 

Thus, it will be seen that the water-wheel which revolves more 
rapidly is narrower than the one with the same discharge of water 
by an open outlet, and it is, consequently, less costly in construc- 
tion ; but then, it only gives out, as useful effect, about 50 per 
cent, of the absolute force of the stream, whilst that given out by 
the other description may reach, as we have seen, as much as 70 
per cent. 

With regard to the other dimensions of the wheel, we have 
merely to refer to what has been said about the common under- 
shot water-wheel. 

WATER-WHEELS WITH CURVED BUCKETS. 

389. These wheels are fitted with inclined ducts for the water, 
the inclination being equal to a base of 1 metre for every 1 or 2 
metres in height — that is to say, to 45 to 600 ; they are enclosed 
for a short distance in a circular channel, and between two side 
walls. 

They are seldom constructed except for low falls of from -5 to 
1 -3 metres, and when a great velocity is required ; the useful effect 
they give out varies from 45 to 55 per cent. 

It is of importance that the water duct be brought as close up to 
the circumference of the wheel as possible, and that, at its lower 
part, it should have an enlargement of 10 or 15 centimetres, to 
facilitate the disengagement of the water, and render its action 
freer ; this enlargement should commence at a distance from the 
vertical line passing through the centre of the wheel, equal to the 
space between two consecutive buckets. The velocity of the 
wheel should be from -5 to -55 times that of the water at its exit 
from the duct. 

The width of these wheels is to be calculated in the same manner 



as that for the preceding ones ; as to the diameter, it may be re- 
duced in proportion to the fall, but it should never be less than 
three times the height of the latter. 

The depth of the curved buckets, or the width of the shrouding 
in the direction of the radii of the wheel, should be equal to one- 
fourth of the fall augmented by the height of orifice open. 

For falls of less than 1*2 m., the height of the orifice, or the depth 
of the outflowing water, should be from -2 to -22 m. ; it may be 
reduced to -18 or -16 m. for falls of from 1-2 to 1-5 m. 

The buckets or floats are in the form of a cylindrical curve, 
being a single circular arc, tangential to the radius at the inner part, 
and making an angle of about 24° or 25° with the stream of water 
flowing towards the inside of the crown of the wheel. The space 
between two consecutive buckets is measured at the outer circum- 
ference by an angle of 25°, and their thickness is 24 to 28 hun- 
dredths when made of wTought-iron plates, and 32 to 35 when of 
wood. The bottom of the channel should have a fall or inclina- 
tion of about j^th or -jJ-th — that is to say, equal to that of the 
hypofhenuse of a triangle, the base of winch is 12 or 15, and the 
height 1 metre. 

TURBINES. 

390. Among the varieties of turbines which receive the action 
of the water throughout their whole circumference, may be distin- 
guished those which discharge the water at their outer circumfer- 
ences, and those which allow it to escape behind. The useful effect 
given out by these wiieels varies from 55 to 65 per cent of the 
absolute force of the stream of water. 

For these descriptions of wheel, the discharge of water is cal- 
culated in accordance with the rules and tables already cited. For 
the first kind, termed centrifugal turbines, the internal diameter is 
determined by multiplying the fourth or fifth of the velocity due to 
the total fall by 785 - 4 ; then dividing the quantity of water to be 
discharged by the result obtained, and finally extracting the square 
root of the quotient. 

Example. — Let us suppose that the fall is 2-2 m., and the dis- 
charge of water 800 litres per second. It will be gathered from 
the table on page 111, that the velocity due to the height, 

2-2 m. = 6-57 m. 
We have then, 

6-57 „ „ , 6-57 

— — • = 1-642, and — — = 1314 ; 
4 O 



and further, 



D 



/ 800 
V 785-4 x 



x 1-642 



= -787 



/ 800 

D = V 785-4 x 1-314 = -874 m6tres ' 

for the internal diameter of the cylindrical tank above the turbine. 
Add 4 or 5 centimetres for the internal diameter of the latter, 
which gives 

•82 to -91 m. 
The external diameter should be equal to the internal diameter 
multiplied by T25 or l - 45, and is, therefore, 
1-025 to 1-189 m. ; 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



131 



1-137 to 1-319 m. 

When the height of the fall and the discharge of water are 
variable, the diameters should be calculated for the extreme cases, 
so that the most advantageous proportion may be adopted — that is, 
the one which will give the best result throughout the greater part 
of the year. 

If the variation is very considerable, there should be two or more 
turbines employed, some calculated for the lowest discharges, others 
for the mean, and others again for the maximum discharges. 

The height of the buckets — that is to say, the vertical distance 
between the two discs which form their top and bottom — is gene- 
rally about a fifth, or a fourth at most, of the radius of the interior 
of the wheel. 

Thus, in the case before us, the diameter being -787 or -874, the 
radius is -3985 or -437, and, consequently, the height of the buckets 
should be -1 to "11 m. 

The buckets being cylindrical in form, their entrance is normal 
to the conducting channels which direct the water against them, 
and for these low discharges of water should make angles of 68° to 
70° with the internal circumference of the wheel — that is to say, 
the conducting channels should make angles of 20° to 22° with the 
circumference. When the discharges are large, this angle may be 
increased to 30° or 45° ; thus, for a discharge of 600 to 700 litres 
per second, it is considered that the angle should be about 30°. 

In order to obtain the maximum useful effect, the velocity of the 
wheel should be equal to about -7 times that of the water; in prac- 
tice, one-tenth may be added to this ratio, or one-fifth to one-sixth, 
without materially diminishing the useful effect. 

The space between each bucket, taken at the internal circum- 
ference, should be nearly equal to the distance between the top and 
bottom discs of the turbine; it should, however, never exceed 18 
to 20 centimetres. The internal and external distances between 
the buckets are necessarily in the ratio of the internal and external 
• diameters of the wheel. 

In the following table we give the principal dimensions, data, and 
results of several descriptions of turbines, constructed, within the 
last few years, by MM. Fourneyron, Fontaine, and Andre Koechlin. 

These results have been selected under circumstances where the 
best useful "effects were given out : — 

FABLE OF DIMENSIONS AND PRACTICAL RESULTS OF VARIOUS 
KINDS OF TURBINES. 



Data and Results. 


Names 


of the Turbines and of their 
Constructors. 


Mnussav 

Turbiue. 
Fotumqmn. 


Mulbach 
Turbine. 
t hi ■ ran, 


Bonchet 

Turbine. 

Fontaine. 


V:i,lt'iiav 
Turbine. 

l ,,,i .,,,„■. 


Total fall, 

Discharge per second 


7-56 m. 
52" lit. 
■850 rn. 
•11(1 m. 

■071 m. 

185 
Xi ii. r. 

70° J, 


3-45 IB. 
8500 lit. 

10 m. 
•835 m. 
•270 m. 

1(2 

24 

55 

DO n. r. 

70°/„ 


loo in. 
218 ht. 
1-83 in. 

•Ill m. 
58 
21 

2 ii. r. 

71°/ 


140 in. 

1 411(1 lit. 
MHO in. 




■83 iii. 




Number of buckets, 


64 
39 


Nuuiijir of revolution* per minute,. . 


18 H. P. 


Ratio of useful effect tu absolute 1 


71°/ 







Data and Results. 



Total fall, 

Discharge per second* 

External diameter, 

Width of buckets, 

Number; of buckets, 

Area of outlets, 

Area of escape outlet below the wheel, 
Number of revolutions per minute,. . . . 

Useful effect, 

Ratio of useful effect to absolute force, 



Jonval Turbines, constructed by M. 
Andre Koechlin, Mulhouse 



2-720 m. 

684 lit. 
•800 m. 
■410 m. 

16 
•290 sq. m. 
'450 sq. m. 
90 to 158 
13 H. p. 



2-77 


m. 


470 lit. 


•800 


m. 


.100 


m. 


18 




•220 


sq. ru. 


•45 


sq. m. 


90 to 168 


15 


H. P. 


72 


'In 



1-70 m. 
355 lit. 
•810 m. 
•120 m. 
18 
•0706 sq. in. 
2977 sq. m. 
90 
6 H. P. 
72°/ 



REMARKS ON MACHINE TOOLS. 

VELOCITY OF THE TOOL, OR OPERATING PIECE, IN MACHINES 
INTENDED TO WORK IN WOOD AND METAL. 

391. The principal machine tools, employed in machine shops, 
are — 

1. The simple lathe, the self-acting lathe, and the wheel-cutting 
lathe, with adjustable table. 

2. Boring machines of various dimensions, and radial drilling 
machines. 

3. Horizontal and vertical shaping machines. 

4. Planing machines with a fixed tool, or with a moveable one, 
so as to work both ways. 

5. Mortising or slotting machines, having a vertical tool with a 
revolving table below. 

6. Machines for finishing nuts and screws. 

7. Machines for cutting screws and bolts. 

8. Dividing engines, for dividing and cutting toothed-wheels 
of all dimensions. 

9. Straight and curved shears, for shearing plates. 

10. Punching and riveting machines. 

11. Steam and other hammers. 

1 2. Straight and circular saws. 

The velocity of the cutting tools, in these machines, varies 
according to the nature of the material, and the quality of work 
desired. 

In general, for soft cast-iron, it is convenient to give a velocity 
of seven to eight centimetres per second to the tool, in such ma- 
chines as lathes, and planing and slotting machines. This velocity 
should bo reduced, at least, to four or five centimetres in shaping, 
drilling, and screwing machines. When the cast-iron is hard, the 
velocity is considerably diminished. 

For wrought-iron, tho velocity may be advantageously increased 
one half, because the tool is kept well lubricated with oil, or with 
soap and water ; thus, in turning or planing, the velocity may l>» 
raised to cloven or twelve centimetres j ami in Bhaping and screw- 
ing, to about six centimetres per second. 

For copper, brass, and other analogous metals, with which the 
tool docs not become heated whilst working, the velocity maj be 

very much greater; and for wood, its only limits are those deter- 
mined by the size of the tool, and by the powers of the machine. 
With regard to the pressure and rate of advance ^' the tool per 

revolution, or per stroke, il necessarily v.'iries according to tho 

dimensions of the machine itself, and also according to the degree 



132 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



of finish which is to be given to the surface ; we evidently cannot 
give as much pressure to the tool upon a small lathe as to that 
upon a large one — to a small drill, as to a powerful shaping 
machine. This variation extends, for the different metals, from a 
tenth of a millimetre, in some cases, to as much as two millimetres 



in others. Amongst other things, the following table shows the 
rotative velocity to be given to the tool — when it revolves, and the 
work is fixed; or to the latter when it revolves, and the cutting 
tool does not ; — in lathes, and shaping and drilling machines. 



TABLE OF VELOCITY AXD RRESSURE OF MACHIXE TOOLS OR CUTTERS. 





Turning. 


Drilling and Shaping. 


Diameter 


Number 


Work performed per hour 


Number 


Work performed per hour 


in 


of revolutions 


with 


of revL 


lutions 


with 


centimetres. 


per mmute. 


h m /m of pressure. 


per minute. 


J "Win of pressure. 




Cast 


Wrought 


Cast 


Wrought 


Cast 


Wrought 


Cast 


Wrought 




Iron. 


Iron. 


Iron. 


Iruu. 


Iron. 


Iron. 


Iron. 


Iron. 








cent. 


cent. 






cent. 


cent. 


1 


152-9 


229-4 


458-5 


687-8 


76-4 


114-6 


229-2 


343-9 


2 


764 


114-6 


229-2 


343-9 


38-2 


57-3 


114-6 


171-9 


3 


50-9 


76-4 


152-8 


229-2 


25-5 


38-2 


76-4 


114-6 


4 


38-2 


57-3 


114-6 


171-9 


19-1 


28-7 


57-3 


85-9 


5 


30-6 


45-8 


91-7 


137-5 


15-3 


22-9 


45-8 


68-7 


6 


25-5 


38-2 


76-4 


114-6 


12-7 


191 


38-2 


57-3 


8 


19-1 


28-7 


57-3 


85-9 


9-5 


14-3 


28-6 


42-9 


10 


153 


22-9 


45-8 


68-7 


7-6 


11-5 


22-9 


34-3 


12 


12-7 


191 


38-2 


573 


6-4 


9-5 


19-1 


28-6 


15 


10-2 


15-3 


30-5 


45-8 


51 


7-6 


152 


22-9 








With 1 ra/m of pressure. 






With 1 ™ 1 m of pressure. 


20 


7-6 


US 


45-8 


68-7 


3-8 


5-7 


22-9 


34-3 


25 


6-1 


9-2 


366 


55-0 


3-0 


4-6 


18-3 


27-4 


30 


5-1 


7-6 


30-5 


45-8 


2-5 


3-8 


152 


22-9 


35 


4-4 


65 


26-1 


39-0 


2-2 


33 


13-0 


196 


40 


3-8 


5-7 


22-9 


34-3 


1-9 


2-9 


11-4 


171 


45 


34 


5-1 


20-3 


30-5 


1-7 


2-5 


10-1 


152 


50 


31 


4-6 


18-3 


27-4 


1-5 


23 


9-1 


13-7 


55 


2-7 


4-2 


16-2 


24-9 


1-4 


2-1 


8-2 


12-6 


60 


2-5 


3-8 


15-2 


22-9 


1-3 


T9 


7-6 


11-4 


65 


2-3 


35 


14-1 


21-1 


12 


1-8 


7-0 


10-5 


70 


2-2 


3-3 


13-0 


19-6 


ri 


1-6 


65 


9-7 


75 


2-0 


3-0 


12-1 


18-3 


l'O 


1-5 


6-0 


90 


80 


1-9 


2-9 


11-4 


171 


•9 


1-4 


5-7 


8-5 


90 


1-7 


2-5 


10-1 


15-2 


•8 


13 


5-0 


7-6 


100 


1-5 


2-3 


9-1 


13-7 


•8 


11 


4-5 


68 


110 


1-4 


2-1 


8-2 


126 


'7 


1-0 


4-1 


6-2 


120 


1-3 


1-9 


7-6 


11-4 


•6 


•9 


3-7 


5-7 


130 


1-2 


1-8 


7-0 


10-5 


•6 


•9 


3-4 


52 


140 


1-1 


1-6 


65 


9-7 


'5 


•8 


32 


4-8 


150 


1-0 


1-5 


60 


9-0 


•5 


•8 


3-0 


4-5 


175 


•9 


1-3 


5-1 


7-8 


•4 


•6 


2-6 


39 


200 


•8 


1-1 


4-5 


6-8 


•4 


•6 


2-2 


3-4 


225 


•7 


1-0 


4-0 


60 


•3 


■5 


1-9 


3-0 


250 


■6 


•9 


3-6 


5-4 


•3 


•4 


1-8 


2-7 


275 


•5 


•8 


3-3 


4-9 


•3 


•4 


1-6 


2-4 


300 


•5 


•7 


3-0 


4-5 


•2 


•4 


1*5 


2-2 


350 


•4 


•6 


2-5 


3-9 


•2 


•3 


1-2 


1-9 


400 


•3 


•5 


2-2 


3-4 


•2 


•3 


1-1 


1-6 



This table will serve as a guide in designing machine tools for 
the various combinations of movements, the application of which 
may be called for according to the nature and dimensions of the 
work to be submitted to their action. Thus, a lathe which is only 
intended to turn articles of from four to twenty or thirty centi- 



metres in diameter, should have a considerable rotative velocity, 
whilst one that is to be chiefly applied to turning and shaping 
bulky pieces, or such as measure from one to two metres in dia- 
meter, should, on the contrary, be actuated by a combination of 
verv slow, but, at the same time, very powerful movements. 



/ 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



133 



CHAPTER X. 
THE STUDY OP MACHINERY AND SKETCHING. 

VARIOUS APPLICATIONS AND COMBINATIONS. 



392. Hitherto we have had to occupy ourselves with industrial 
drawing-, as regards only the geometrical delineation of the princi- 
pal elements of machineiy and architecture. This preliminary study 
being of great importance, we have thought it well to dwell more 
particularly upon it, since also it is the very basis of all designing, 
with a view to actual construction, comprehending not only the 
mere outline of objects, but also the proportions between the vari- 
ous parts, as dependent upon the functions which each is required 
to perform. 

Machines are, indeed, but well calculated and thoughtfully ar- 
ranged combinations of these elements, and afford innumerable 
applications of the rules and instructions laid down in reference to 
them. The study, therefore, of machines in their complete state, 
naturally suggests itself as the next step to be taken. 

393. Machines may, in general, be classified under three catego- 
ries — machine tools, productive or manufacturing machinery, and 
prime movers. 

By machine tools -are meant those by the instrumentality of 
which we work upon raw materials, as wood, metal, stone ; lathes, 
wheel-cutting machines; drilling, boring,' and shaping machines; 
mortising, slotting, planing, and grooving machines ; riveting ma- 
chines ; shears, saws, hammers — are of this class. The movements 
)f these machines should be so combined, that the tool or cutting 
instrument — that is, that part which attacks the material — should 
move with a velocity properly proportioned to the nature of the 
work. 

In the few notes accompanying our text will be found some 
experimental deductions, which may serve as guides for adjusting 
the movements in designing and constructing machinery of this 
description. 

Amongst productive or manufacturing machinery, are comprised 
spinning, weaving, and printing machines; pumps, presses, corn, 
and oil mills ; and, finally, prime movers consist of those worked by 
animals ; windmills, water-wheels, turbines, and steam-engines. 

For the study of complete machines, we have selected from each 
of these categories those possessing most interest and generality — 
as a drilling machine, an instrument so very useful and so much 
employed in machine-shops and railway works; a pump for raising 
water, serving for domestic purposes as well as for important manu- 
facturing establishments ; two examples of water-wheels, showing 
various arrangements and forms of floats or buckets; a high pres- 
sure expansive steam-engine, with geometrical diagrams, determin- 
ing the relative positions of the principal pieces in various circum- 
stances ; and, finally, a set of bolt-driven flour niills, constructed on 
a system recently adopted. 

Before proceeding to the description of these machines, il will 
be necessary to habituate the student to draw from Hie reality, 
for up to tho present time ho will have done nothing 1ml copy 
the various graphic examples to this or that scale. The operation 
in question consists in drawing with the hand, the elevation, plan, 



sections, and details of a machine, preserving, as much as possible, 
the forms and proportions of each part ; and then taking the actual 
measurement of each part, and laying it down in figures in its par- 
ticular position upon the drawing : this duplex operation of sketch- 
ing and measuring constitutes the study of the rough draughting 
of machinery. 



THE SKETCHING OF MACHINERY. 

PLATES XXXV. AND XXXVI. 

394. Before commencing the sketch or rough draught of a 
machine, it is absolutely necessary to look carefully into its organi- 
zation, the action of the various working parts, the motion of the 
intermediate mechanical connections, and finally, its object and 
results. The object of this preliminary examination is to give the 
draughtsman a good general idea of the more important parts — 
those which he will have to render most prominent and detailed 
when he comes to make a complete drawing of the whole ; such 
drawing comprising a series of combined views, together with sepa- 
rate diagrams of such details as may not be apparent in the former, 
or require to be drawn to a different scale to render them intelligi- 
ble. In fact, this must be done in such a manner, that, with tho 
aid of the sketch, a perfect representation of the machine may be 
got up, which, if necessary, may serve in the construction of other 
similar machines. 



DRILLING MACHINE. 
PLATE XXXV. 

395. In order to give an exact idea of the manner of sketching 
machinery, we take a simple machine as an example ; this we sip- 
pose to be represented in perspective* in fig. A, this vjew being 
instead of the machine itself. 

This machine is for drilling metals : it consists of a vertical cast- 
iron column, a, which forms part of tho building or workshop. 
This column is hollow, and rests by an enlarged baso upon a stone 
plinth, b, imbedded in tho ground, and at its upper end it supports 
the beam, c. 

Upon one side of this column is cast the vortical face, n, which 
is planed to receive three cast-iron brackets, E, r, G, attached to 
it by bolts. To the opposito side, d', of tho same column, is in 
like manner attached the bracket, H, which, With the middle one, 

f, on the other side, serves to carry the horizontal spindle, i. 
This spindle carries on one side the cone-pulley, j, over which 

pusses the dri\ ing-holl. C, and on the other extremity it has 

keyed upon it the bevil-pinion, l, which gears with a larger 
bevil-wheel, m. This laal is attached to the vertical slmft, n, 

■ in n ub i i "i ohaptar, «>• thtll i xplaln Uie isnaral principle of ponlM *n4 

, li pi i pecilve. 






131 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



which is, in feet, the drill-holder, and is moveable in the bracket- 
hearings, f and g. This shaft receives a duplex movement, that of 
continuous rotation, which is more or less rapid, according as the 
belt, k, is on the less or greater diameter of the cone-pulley ; and 
the other vertical and rectilinear, due to the action of the screw, o, 
which works in an internal screw in the end of the bracket, E. 
This screw carries at its upper end a spur-wheel, p, gearing with a 
small pinion, q, the shaft, R, of which is prolonged downwards, and 
terminates in a small hand-wheel, s. 

The object to be drilled is held between a pair of jaws, a, a', set 
ui grooves upon the table, t, and capable of adjustment back and 
forward by means of the screw, b, the head of which has a sliding 
handle. The table, t, is made in two pieces, so as to form a collar 
about the column, a, and it is fixed at any convenient height upon 
this column by means of the pressure screw, c; the exact distance 
of the table from the drill, d, according to the thickness of the piece 
of metal to be drilled, is settled by means of the vertical rack, v, 
which is fitted to the front of the column, and into which gears a 
pinion on the shaft, e, carrying the handle,/, at its extremity. The 
rotation of this handle and the pinion necessarily causes the ascent 
or descent of the table, T. 

The drilling machine, then, fulfils the following conditions : on 
the one hand, the drill, d, is worked at a greater or less speed of 
rotation, whilst it descends vertically with a very slow motion, 
which latter varies, of course, with the nature of the material acted 
upon ; and, on the other hand, the table which carries the object to 
be drilled is capable of being set at the most convenient height, 
according to the forms and dimensions of the objects, whilst it may 
nlso be set eccentrically, when necessary, by turning it to the re- 
quired extent round the column. 

396. After having thus taken note of the construction and action 
of each individual piece and element of the machine, the draughts- 
man may proceed to make his sketch. He should commence by 
drawing a rough general view, indicating, in mere outline, the rela- 
tive positions of the various pieces. 

For example, in fig. 1 will be seen the geometrical elevation 
of the column, a, with the positions of the brackets and the table, 
which are merely in outline. It is advisable, even in this rough 
draught, as well as in the finished drawing, with or without the 
assistance of a rule, to draw the centre lines for guides; thus, 
after drawing the first centre line, g h, of the column, a, draw 
upon each side of it the portions forming its contour ; then draw 
parallel to it the centre line, ij, of the drill-stock, s ; then the hori- 
zontal, k Z, which represents the centre line of the bevil-wheel, l, 
and the driving-pulleys, J, and likewise the straight lines, m n, 
o p, q r, which are the centre lines of the brackets, e, f, and 
g ; finally, draw the lines, s I and u v, of the table, t, and 
of the bracket, h ; and likewise the extreme lines, x y,w z, of 
the bottom and top of the column. At this stage it is neces- 
sary to lay down the measurements upon the sketch. The 
column being fitted with the principal parts of the drilling appa- 
ratus, so that no clear space can be found upon it for the 
height to be measured close to it, a plumb-line is suspended 
from the point, z, on the beam, c, which rests upon the column, 
and this line is measured either by a foot-rule, or by a mea- 
suring-tape, and the measurement in fe e t, or metres, and frac- 



tions thereof, may be written upon the centre line, g h, of the 
column. 

The draughtsman must next measure the diameters at the base 
and summit of the column, as well as those of the various mould- 
ings. These diameters may be measured with callipers, which 
open to such an extent that they can be applied to the place in 
question, the amount of opening being then measured upon the 
rule, and written down upon the corresponding place in the sketch ; 
or the diameters may be obtained by applying a cord, or a very 
flexible rule, to the circumference. This latter method is always 
employed for cylinders of large diameter, when it is not possible to 
obtain the measurement from either base. In this case, to obtain 
tbe actual diameter, it is necessary, as has been seen (72), to divide 
the circumference found, by 3-1416. 

To obtain the distance of the line, i j, from g h, the centre line 
of the column, place the extremity of the rule at i', against the 
surface of the column, and let it lie across the centre, i, of the 
spur-wheel, p, or screw, o ; the measurement read off the rule will 
be that of i' i, to which must be added the radius, i! i 1 , of the 
column. 

If the centre, i, were not approachable with the rule, we should 
have to take the internal distance between the surface of the 
column and that of the screw, and then add the respective radii 
of the screw and column. When these distances are greater 
than the length of the measuring-rule, a rod or tape must be 
employed. When, indeed, the draughtsman has attained a 
reasonable amount of skill, he may take the measurement, i z 5 , 
directly, by applying the rule upon the surface of the column 
opposite to its centre, and also opposite to the axis of the screw, 
in such a manner that the rule shall be tangential to the column, 
when the space between the two points will be the measurement 
sought. 

It is further necessary to quote upon the sketch, the vertica 1 
distances between the different horizontal lines, mn, o p, q r, s t. 
The measurements indicated upon fig. 1 will show how all these 
are obtained. 

The preceding operations will allow of the finished drawing being 
commenced, by laying off the relative position of the main parts 
which go to compose the machine to be sketched. We have next 
to sketch and measure ai' the minor details of each separate piece 
of the machine. To this effect, and to avoid confusion, it is neces- 
sary to treat each of these pieces as detached, and to draw different 
views of them, upon which the dimensions of every part may be 
properly indicated. 

Figs. 2 and 3 represent, in elevation and plan, the detail of the 
principal bracket, f, which supports the shafts, i and n, with the 
bevil-wheels, l and m. Even these views are not sufficient to 
represent thoroughly all the dimensions of this bracket; thus it 
is necessary to draw a section such as that made at the line, 
1 — 2, and projected in fig. 4, so as to show the exact form of the 
feathers of the bracket ; it is likewise necessary to make a side 
view (fig. 5) of the bearing, b', which holds up the shaft, n, to the 
bracket, and also a vertical section (fig. 6) made at the line, " 
3 — 4, to show the brasses which embrace the journal of the 
shaft, i. These details should alw T ays, if possible, be drawn to 
a larger scale, so as to indicate the adjustments clearly, and to 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



135 



give room for the measurements ; and it may be observed, that, for 
a draughtsman who has not much practical knowledge of machine- 
ry details, it will be necessary to take down or separate various 
parts, such as the cap and the upper brass. With regard to wheel- 
work, it will be sufficient to give the section of the web and boss, 
as indicated in figs. 2 and 7, and a section, as fig. 8, of one of the 
arms when the wheel has any, and then the numbers of teeth and 
arms must be counted and set down. 

When all the parts of any detail are thus sketched out in 
elevation, plan, or section, the draughtsman must take the 
measurements of each, and set them down in their appropriate 
positions upon the sketches, as indicated in the figures; being 
mindful to see that the principal measurements coincide with those 
laid off in the complete general view already commenced. The 
measurements of the diameter of the pitch-circle, and of the width 
of the teeth, will be sufficient, in addition to what has already 
been directed to be done in reference to wheel-work, the proper 
ratios being maintained between those in gear with each other. 
As many parts of machinery require to be in proportion to 
each other, a knowledge of such relations will enable the 
draughtsman to dispense with a great deal of tedious measuring 
and sketching, as in the case just alluded to, of wheels working 
together. • 

The remaining parts of the machine are to be detailed in the 
same manner. Thus, figs. 9, 10, and 11, represent a vertical sec- 
tion, a plan, and a side view of a portion of the table, t, with its 
holding-jaws, and its elevating pinion and shaft. Fig. 12 is a ver- 
tical section of the lower extremity of the drill-stock, or spindle, n, 
with the drill, d, in elevation. Fig. 13 is a section of the cone- 
pulley, j. Figs. 14 and 15 show, in vertical and horizontal section, 
the manner of jointing the screw, o, into the upper end of the 
spindle, n. Finally, figs. 16 and 17 give a complete detail of the 
mechanism for elevating the table, t, as well as that for fixing or 
adjusting it at any required height. 

■ 397. On all the preceding details, we have quoted the measure- 
ments of the different parts exactly as they should be upon an 
actual machine. These measurements are expressed in millimetres, 
as in former examples, this measuring unit being adopted because 
its minute scale renders fractions unnecessary. We have also 
slightly shaded various parts, as is generally done where the com- 
plication and variety of forms would otherwise lead to confusion 
and error. Besides, in this manner, a few touches of tho pencil 
show at once whether this or that portion is round or square, and, 
in many instances, the labour of drawing additional views will 
thereby be dispensed with. 

In order to facilitate the proceedings of beginners in sketching, 
we would recommend them to delineate the main centre lines with 
the aid of a rule, and the circles with compasses, though the dimen- 
sions of the latter need not be exact. This will give the sketch a 
much neater appoaranco, and render the various objects or details 
more regular. It is with this view that sketchers frequently employ 
cross-ruled paper, with horizontal and vertical linos equally spaced. 
That portion of Plato XXXV., upon which are sketched figs. 9, 10, 
and 11, is of this description. 

It will bo understood, that, if tho lines ruled upon (ho paper are 
at equal distances apart, corresponding to one or more units of tho 



scale to which the sketches are being ni'tde, these may be drawn in 
correct proportions at once, in which case it will be unnecessary to 
write on the various measurements. 

The example which we have given as an introduction to the 
study of sketching machines, will have somewhat familiarized the 
student with his operations even now. The applications contained 
in the subsequent examples will suffice to complete this study, 
which is one of great importance to the draughtsman and construct- 
ive engineer. 



MOTIVE MACHINES. 



WATE R-WHE ELS. 



PLATE XXXYI. 

398. The water-wheel, represented in fig. 1, has plane floats, and 
works, through a portion of its circumference, in a concentric cir- 
cular channel. It receives the water from over a sluice-gate, a 
little below its centre, and is of the undershot description. 

The wheel is composed of several parallel shroudings, a, in 
which are fitted the radial wooden bearers, b, carrying the floats, c. 
When the shroudings are of cast-iron, as is supposed in the present 
example, they are cast in one piece with the arms, d, and central 
boss, e, and are firmly secured by keys, a, upon the shaft, f, also 
of cast-iron. 

The head of the channel, a, which embraces the lower part of 
the wheel, is constructed with a piece, h, in cast-iron, called the 
neck-piece, which is fitted upon the cross timber, i, and let into the 
two lateral walls. Against this neck-piece works the wooden 
sluice, j, above which overflows a certain depth of water, falling, 
in succession, upon each float of the wheel as it comes round, 
causing it to turn in the direction of the arrow. The rotatory 
movement of this water-wheel is taken off by the cast-iron spur- 
wheel, k, mounted upon the end of the shaft, f, and gearing with 
the cast-iron pinion, l, the shaft of which communicates with the 
machinery to be set in motion. 

In giving this example, our object has been to examine this motor, 
not only with reference to its accurate delineation, but also with a 
view to sketching similar wheels, as well as to constructing and 
setting them up, with their channel and sluice gear. 

THE CONSTRUCTION AND SETTING UP OF THE WATER-WHEEL. 

399. The channel, G,is built up of hown stones, the lateral jointa 
of which converge towards the centre, o, of the wheel, and they are 
imbedded upon a foundation of ordinary stone-work. All thu 
masonry is put together with mortar, made with hydraulic lime, 
the joints being finished with Roman cement. In some localities 
the channel is of bricks or freestone, and sometimes even of (rood. 
The apparent concave surface of tho channel .should bo perfeotly 
cylindrical, and concentric with tho external circumference of tho 
wheel. Also, before placing the latter in ils proper position, this 
BUrface should be finished, and rendered quite BIBOOth and true, 
which may be done with the assistance of a temporary shaft, o. 
with the actual shaft of the wheel, in the following manner: — 

The shaft, F (.1 16), is adjusted to the exact height at which it is 
to he afterwards, and it is made capable of rotation in appro 



J3« 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



priate bearings, adjusted upon iron plates, let into and firmly bolted 
to the lateral walls. 

Upon this shaft are fitted the shroudings, A, each connected to 
its boss by eight arms. To the outside of these arms are then 
temporarily attached two radial pieces of wood, having a cross piece 
attached to them, the outer edge of which is made true and parallel 
to the shaft, and coincident with the external edges of the complete 
wheel. It will be evident that, if the shaft is now made to revolve, 
this frame upon it will describe a cylindrical surface, which is 
precisely that which the channel should possess; it will serve, 
therefore, as an accurate guide in giving the channel its appropriate 
contour. 

The lower part of the channel is continued on in a straight line, 
commencing at the vertical, o b, and in a direction, b c, slightly 
inclined to a short distance away from the wheel, to facilitate the 
escape of the water. 

The cross timber, i, which surmounts the masonry of the chan- 
nel, and which receives the neck-piece, h, is also rendered concave 
internally, like the channel, so as to allow the sluice-gate to be 
brought closer up to the wheel. The neck-piece, h, which forms 
the crest of the channel, is more frequently constructed of cast-iron 
than of either wood or stone, as that material does not require to 
be so thick, for resisting the pressure of the water. The top of the 
neck-piece is at a distance below the upper water-level, corre- 
sponding to the greatest depth of water which it is proposed to ad- 
mit to the wheel at any time. This depth of water varies very 
considerably, according to the quantity of water to be discharged, 
and the width which it is wished to give the wheel. Behind the 
neck-piece, a cavity, in, is formed in the masonry, which is intended 
to receive the sluice, J, when lowered, and is of a sufficient size to 
allow of its being cleaned out, so that it may not become choked 
up with sediment. The small raised portion of masonry behind 
this, again, serves to arrest floating bodies, as trees, &c, independ- 
ently of a grating placed further behind, and preventing their re- 
acting, and injuring the wheel. 

The sluice consists of two strong oaken planks, having grooved 
and tongued joints, and being made thicker at the middle than at 
the extremities, where the wheel is of a greater width than 1£ 
metre. The amount of inclination of this sluice, J, is determined 
by drawing a perpendicular to the extremity of the radius, o f, 
drawn near the middle, or, perhaps, two-thirds of the depth of the 
overflowing body of water. The sluice is moveable in grooves, 
in two wooden side-posts, n, entirely imbedded in the lateral walls. 
At the upper parts of these are iron bearing-pieces, to receive two 
straight cast-iron racks, o, which rise above the cross timber, p, 
attached to the two side-posts, n. These racks rest, on one side, 
upon the friction-pulleys, h, which also guide them, and, on the 
other side, they gear with the pinions, g, keyed upon one horizon- 
tal axis. This latter is at one end prolonged, to receive the worm- 
wheel, q, actuated by the worm, e, which may be worked at 
pleasure from above — a winch-handle, or hand-wheel, being fixed 
upon the upper extremity of its vertical spindle for this purpose. 
This arrangement permits of the regulation of the position of the 
sluice, and, consequently, of the depth of the overflowing water, 
with the greatest nicety, as well as of the total shutting off of the 
water from the wheel. 



The shrouding, a, of the wheel, being of cast-iron, the weight 
has been reduced, by making panels in it, as at h, i, shown in the 
elevation, fig. 1, and section, fig. 2, made at the circular line, 1 — 2. 
It is also cast with mortises, to receive the tenons, or ends, of the 
carrier-pieces, b, to which the floats are bolted. 

When the wheel has counter-floats, as represented at the lower 
part of figure 1, which is only the case when the discharge, and 
consequently the depth, of water at the sluice-gate is very small, 
the carrier-pieces are very short, and do not project far upon the 
inner side of the shrouding. But when the wheel is without 
counter-floats, which is the case when the discharge, and conse- 
quently the depth, of water at the sluice is considerable, the floats, 
c, and their carrier-pieces, b, are prolonged to a considerable dis- 
tance inside the shroudings, as has been supposed to be the case 
in the upper part of fig. 1. In both cases, the tenons, or ends, of 
the carrier-pieces, always lie in the direction of radii from the centre 
of the wheel, and they are retained by iron-keys,/, upon the inside 
of the shroudings. Sometimes, in order to facilitate the adjust- 
ment of the earner-pieces upon the shroudings, in place of fitting 
them into closed mortises, they are received into slightly dovetailed 
recesses, formed upon the side, as shown in figs. 3 and 4, being 
retained in position by wedges,/. When this last arrangement is 
adopted, it is unnecessary to cut holes in the carrier-pieces for the 
reception of the keys. 

When the shroudings are of wood, they must necessarily be 
composed of several pieces, which are fitted together with mortise 
and tenon joints, as shown in figs. 5 and 6; and to consolidate the 
joint, iron straps, k, are added, secured at one side by bolts, and 
at the other by keys, or tightening screws, by means of which the 
perfect union of the component pieces can at all times be obtained, 
should they begin to get loose. In tins system, the carrier-pieces 
are adjusted with tenons, keyed on the inside of the shrouding, as 
indicated in figs. 7 and 8, and the oaken arms are joined to the 
shrouding with tenons, being further seemed by iron straps, as 
shown in figs. 9 and 10. 

The floats, c, of the wheel, are formed of oaken boards, and are 
attached to the carrier-pieces, b, by means of the bolts, Z. 

The counter-floats, s, extend from the inner ends of the floats, 
c, to the bottom pieces, s', and are nailed down upon the small 
triangular pieces, m. The open spaces left between the ends of 
the floats and the bottom pieces serve for the escape of the air. 
When the floats are lengthened, they are, of course, formed of 
several boards, joined edge to edge. 

DELINEATION OF THE WATER-WHEEL. 

400. The explanations just given will have enabled the student 
to comprehend the details and peculiarities of construction of the 
wheel, channel, and sluice apparatus. He should now proceed to 
delineate these various objects in the following manner : — Place 
the centre, o, of the wheel, at the intersection of two lines which 
form a right angle ; and with this centre, describe a first circle, 
with a radius equal to that of the wheel and channel. Divide 
this circle into as many equal parts as there are to be floats. The 
number of the floats should always be divisible by that of the 
arms of the shrouding, so as not to be restricted as to space in 
fitting in the carrier-pieces. Through each point of division draw 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



137 



lines passing through the centre, and representing the sides of the 
carrier-pieces upon which each float is placed. Two circles must 
next be described, expressing the depth of the shrouding. Then 
the complete outline of one of the carrier-pieces must be drawn, 
with the dimensions quoted on the figure ; and the key and bolts 
may also be indicated upon it. Afterwards, to complete the 
drawing, it will be sufficient to describe a series of circles, passing 
through the bolts, the ends of the floats and carrier-pieces of the 
key, and of the counter-float. With regard to the floats, and to 
the arms of the shrouding, as well as to the spur-gear for trans- 
mitting the motion, the student may refer back to the diagrams 
and explanations already given concerning similar objects. The 
same remark applies to the lifting apparatus of the sluice-gate, 
which is also composed of gearing already treated of in the course 
of the studies. 

DESIGN FOR A WATER-WHEEL. 

401. If it is in contemplation to make a design for the con- 
struction of a water-wheel, analogous, we shall suppose, to the one 
above described, it is simply -necessary to ascertain the height of 
fall, and the amount of discharge per second, of the water at our 
disposal, and to refer to the calculations and practical rules which 
accompany our text, to be able to determine, on the one hand, the 
diameter and width of the wheel, and, on the other, the depth and 
interstices of the floats, and their number. By referring back, also, 
to the tables and notes relating to the resistance of materials 
(Chapter III.), we shall be able to complete the remaining dimen- 
sions for the shaft and its journals, the shrouding and its arms. 

The 6tudy of water-wheels of this description will be much sim- 
plified, if we consider that certain dimensions, such as the thickness 
of the floats, the section of the carrier-pieces and shrouding, and 
the diameter of the bolts, as well as the details of the sluice appa- 
ratus, do not sensibly vary ; and for them the draughtsman may 
refer entirely to those indicated upon the drawing, which are 
themselves examples of actual construction. 

SKETCH OF A WATER-WHEEL. 

402. The sketch of a water-wheel, already constructed and set 
up, is a very simple matter ; for the apparatus consists of a repeti- 
tion of various pieces, and it is sufficient to obtain the measure- 
ments of one only of each kind. Thus, after having measured the 
diameter and extreme width of the wheel with tho aid of a long 
rule or tape, and counted the number of buckets or floats, of tho 
shroudings, and of tho arms, we have merely to take the sketch of 
a single float, with its carrier-piece and accompaniments, then to 
make a section of one of tho shroudings, another of ono of tho 
arms, and, finally, a third of the boss and shaft. 

The details given in figs. 2 to 10 -show the various parts of 
which the sketches liavo to bo made, as detached, together with the 
corresponding measurements. Fig. 20 is a transverse section of 
one of the arms, d, of cast-iron, taken near the boss. 

The sketching of tho sluice apparatus consists in making a 
section of tho side-posts, with their cap-piece, and of Hie sluice 
itself; then a detailed view of one of the racks, with its pinion 
and friction-pulley, and of the worin-u heel and worm. As lo the 
amount of inclination of Hie sluice and side- posts, it has already I 



been seen that it is determined by a perpendicular to the radius,' 
entering near the middle of the depth of water at the outlet, at 
the circumference of the wheel. It may, however, be found by 
means of a plumb-line, let fall from one of the edges of the cap- 
piece down to the level of the water, by measuring the horizontal 
distance, r s, of the plumb-line, from one of the sides of the side- 
post, and then the vertical height, r t. By applying a rule against 
the side-post, and down to the neck-piece, >r, we can always obtain 
.the actual distance of the top of the latter, either from the pro- 
longation of the horizontal, r s, ■or from the cap-piece, p, of the 
sluice. To obtain the horizontal distance, r s, with exactitude, it 
should generally be taken at a given distance above the level of 
the water, and chalked upon one of the side-walls of the channel ; 
it is also advisable to make use of a spirit-level. (Plate I.) 

In order to take an accurate sketch of the neck-piece and the 
channel, it is almost always necessary to stop the water behind 
by means of a dam, so that the parts requiring to be examined 
may be dry and open. The sluice must also be taken away, as 
well as a few of the floats of the wheel. We may remark, that 
this labour may be avoided, when it is known that the height and 
thickness of the neck-piece ^re nearly always equal to those indi- 
cated in fig. 11; and as to the arrangement of the masonry or 
brickwork, of which the channel may be constructed, it will bo 
recollected that all the lateral joints are pointed towards the centre 
of the wheel. 



OVERSHOT WATER-WHEEL. 

Figure 12. 

construction of the wheel, and its sluice apparatus. 

403. Overshot water-wheels, with buckets, receive the water 
from a duct placed immediately above them, and allow it to escape 
from as low a part only as possible. They are constructed of 
wood, or of cast-iron. In the first ease, which is the simpler and 
more economical, the shaft, tho arms, and the shroudings are of 
oak. The lower part of tho wheel, represented in the drawing, 
fig. 12, is of this description. The buckets and the inner-rim are 
likewise of oak, or of iron plates. As this wheel is of small dia- 
meter, its shaft, f, has only six sides; and consequently, each 
shrouding, A, of the wheel has only six arms, D, which are recessed 
into, and bolted upon, a central cast-iron frame, e, which is itself 
keyed upon the shall. The transverse section, tig. 13. shows tho 

manner in w hich the arms are attached to this frame. The wooden 

shroudings, a, arc generally composed of two rings, placed one on 
the other in such a manner that the joints of eaeh are opposite to 
solid portions of the other, to ••break bond," and obviate ihe ten- 
dency to warp. A portion of ths shrouding is represented as de- 
tached in tigs. i land L5. These" rings are held together bj screws, 
», or by nails or pegs; and at their junction w itli the arms, a couple 

Of holts are passed through all. as indicated in the transverse sec- 
tion, fig, 1(>. The buckets, o, an either let into grooves of small 
depth, upon Ihe inner lace of the Shrouding, as seen at C . in li - I I 
and l. r >, or they are retained bj bracket-pieces, <•; and, added to this, 

strong tension rods, d, hold the whole together, being secured to 



138 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the shroudings, a, on either side of the buckets. These tension- 
rods are fixed, when the inner rim, s, or bottom of the buckets, has 
been nailed or screwed to the inner edges of the shroudings. The 
shroudings are further strengthened externally by a circular iron 
strap, g, similar to the felloe of an ordinary wheel, and covering up 
the joints of the duplex shrouding. 

Sometimes the buckets are partly of wood, and partly of iron 
plate, to give them greater strength. The edges, indeed, should 
always be defended with metal, as they are most apt to wear soon. 
The lower portion of the drawing, fig. 12, shows three different 
ways of constructing these buckets. 

When the wheel is of cast-iron, if it is not of a very great dia- 
meter, but of the size represented in the upper part of fig. 12, the 
arms and the boss, e', may be cast in one piece with the shroud- 
ings, a'. Where the diameter is considerable, these consist of 
several pieces bolted together. The bottom piece, or inside rim, 
s', and the buckets, c', are of iron plates, of about {th inch in thick- 
ness. To secure the latter, a series of feathers, figs. 12, 17, and 
19, are cast upon the inner faces of the shroudings, to which they 
are fixed by screw-bolts, I. In the width of the wheel, the buckets 
and the bottom rim are riveted together, as at i, or are fixed together 
by small screw-bolts, i', figs. 17 and 18. 

The advantage of making the buckets of iron plates, consists in 
the being able to give them a curved form, which enlarges their 
capacity, and allows of a more favourable introduction of the water; 
whilst the wooden buckets necessarily consist of two rectilinear 
portions, one of which is directed towards the centre of the wheel, 
whilst the other is inclined. 

The water is conducted by the wooden channel, m, to the top of 
the wheel, and its outflow is regulated by a sluice, J, moving in side 
grooves, and worked by means of a couple of vertical racks, o, and 
pinions, d, the shaft of which last carries the winch-handle, q. The 
two vertical sides, n, of the channel, are prolonged beyond the 
actual summit of the wheel, and their distance asunder should be a 
little less than that of the two shroudings of the wheel, with the 
twofold object of better directing the water into the buckets, and 
of avoiding the splashing and loss of water by allowing the ah- to 
escape laterally. The depth of the outflow of water depends on 
the distance of the lower edge of the sluice above the bottom of 
the channel, and should always be less than the smallest distance 
existing between two consecutive buckets. The pressure of the 
water upon the buckets, produces the rotation of the wheel in the . 
direction of the arrow, and this motion is given off by an internally- 
toothed wheel, attached to the outside of one of the shroudings. 
This wheel, which in the drawing is simply indicated by its pitch 
circle, k, gears with the pinion, l, mounted on the extremity of the 
shaft, which communicates with the machinery in the interior of 
the factory or workshop. 

DELINEATING, SKETCHING, AND DESIGNING OVERSHOT WATER- 
WHEELS. 

404. The delineation of the principal parts of an overshot 
bucket water-wheel, is effected in the same way as that of the 
undershot wheel with floats, the only difference being, in fact, in 
the receptacles for the water. It has been seen, that when these 
buckets are of wood, they are composed of two boards, one of 



which lies in the direction of a radius of the wheel, the other being 
inclined according to the direction of the water, and make an angle 
of 15 or 30 degrees, as the case maybe, with the tangent, to the 
outer circumference of the wheel, drawn through its extremity, as 
will be seen by the angle, a b c, in fig. 17. When the bucket is 
made of iron plates, the same angle is adopted near the outer edge, 
although the whole contour is a continuous curve, which may be 
made up of two or three arcs of circles, as shown in figs. 12, 17, 
and 18. 

In sketching this wheel, the directions given in the preceding 
case may be likewise followed here, by counting the number of 
buckets, and taking an accurate sketch of one of them, together 
with the accompanying measurements. We must also measure 
the internal and external diameters of the shroudings; then the 
least space existing between two consecutive buckets ; also the 
depth from b to d, fig. 17. Finally, if it is required to obtain the 
exact form or curvature of the bucket, it will be necessary to take 
one down, and to make a pattern of it, by applying a sheet of 
paper against one edge, and pencilling out the shape, as is done 
for the forms of wheel-teeth, or other curves, which are difficult to 
measure. As to the sketch of the other parts of the wheel, such 
as the boss, the arms, and also the sluice apparatus, no peculiarity 
or difficulty can present itself which need detain us here. The 
drawing, moreover, indicates all the figures and measurements 
which are necessary. 

In designing an overshot water-wheel, it is necessary to know 
the height of fall, and the daily discharge of the water. With 
regard to these particulars, we must simply refer to our accomna- 
nving Rules and Practical Data. 



WATER-PUMPS. 

PLATE XXXVII. 

GEOMETRICAL DELINEATION. 

405. We have already indicated, in preceding notes and calcula- 
tions, the various classes of pumps, with their proper dimensions, 
in proportion to the quantities of water to be furnished by them. 
We now propose to enter upon more detailed and complete expla- 
nations, with regard to their construction, action, and performance. 
For this purpose we have selected, by preference, a combined 
lifting and forcing pump, the discharge of which is almost continu- 
ous, although its construction is analogous to what is termed a 
single-acting pump. 

Figure 1, on Plate XXXVTL, represents a vertical section, 
taken through the axis of this pump. It consists of a east-iron 
cylinder, a, turned out for the greater portion of its length, and 
resting upon a feathered base, b. cast in one piece with the suction 
or lift-pipe, c, below. This base is bolted down either to stout 
timbers, d, or to a stonework foundation. It encloses the valve- 
seat, E, which consists of a rectangular frame, divided by a central 
partition, a, and having the sides formed so as to present two in- 
clined edges, upon which the brass clack, f, rests w r hen shut. 
The pipe, c, terminates below in a flange, by means of which the 
suction-pipe is attached, extending down to the water to be ele- 
vated. Towards the upper part of the pump cylinder, a, is cast 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



139 



a curved outlet, g, likewise terminating in flanges, to which the 
discharge-pipe is secured. The piston, or bucket, of this pump is 
composed of a brass ring, or short cylinder, H, upon the outer cir- 
cumference of which is formed a groove, b, (fig. 2,) to receive a 
packing-ring, c, which fits, air-tight, to the inside of the pump 
cylinder. The bucket, h, has also a central partition, d, to the top 
of which are jointed the two clacks, i, which rest upon inclined seats, 
formed by the elevated sides, e, of the bucket. This is further cast 
with a bridle,/, perforated in the middle, to receive the screw-bolt, 
g, which secures it to the stout hollow piston-rod, j. This rod, 
which, in the generality of pumps, is made of but small dfameter, 
like the upper part, k, of the one represented in the plate, is, in the 
present instance, of -a sectional area, equal to half that of the pump 
■cylinder. It follows from this, as will be more particularly ex- 
plained further on, that the water is discharged during both the up 
md down stroke of the piston. 

The clacks, f, have projections, h, cast upon them, which pre- 
vent their opening too far, and falling over against the sides of 
the casing, b, so as not to shut again when required to do so. 
The clacks, i, in the bucket, have similar projections, i, for a like 
purpose, these projections striking against the top of the bridle,/, 
when the clacks open. It will have been observed, that the seats 
of these valves are inclined at an angle of 45°, with the view of 
facilitating their opening movement, and diminishing the concus- 
sive action of their own weight. The edges of the valve-seats are 
generally defended with a strip of leather, to facilitate their tight 
closing. 

Figure 2 represents, detached and in elevation, the bucket, h, 
with its clacks, r. Fig. 3 is a horizontal section of the bucket, taken 
at the line, 1 — 2. Figs. 4 and 5 give the details of the valve-seat, 
E, in elevation and plan, the clacks being removed. 

To prevent the entrance of air to the pump cylinder, it is closed 
at the top by a cast-iron cover, l, which is fitted with a stuffing- 
box for the passage of the piston-rod ; the packing is compressed 
by the gland, M, similar in general form to that represented in 
Mate XI. (81.) 

ACTION OF THE PUMP. 

406. The upper extremity of the piston-rod, k, carries a cross- 
head, /, (fig. 6,) and is there jointed to the lower extremity of a 
fniiiiecting-rod, n, which is itself jointed to the pin of a crank, o ; 
this latter is mounted on the end of a horizontal shaft, p, actuated 
by a continuous rotatory movement. This movement is trans- 
formed by means of the crank and connecting-rod into an alternate 
rectilinear motion — that is, into the up-and-down strokes of the 
pump bucket — this last being forced to move in a straight line, the 
cross-head, I, sliding in vertical guide-grooves, to maintain the 
piston-rod, K, in (he same line with it. 

It follows, from this disposition of parts, that when the crank, 

o, is in the position, p — o, fig. 6, the piston will be at the bottom 
of its stroke, that is, at n' ; consequently, during the time the 
crank turns, the piston must rise, tending to leave a vacuum below 
it, because the space between (he clacks, f, and its under side 
increases, as well as the volume of air that may be (herein en- 
closed. Consequently, the pressure of (his air upon (he clacks 
is diminished, whilst that upon (lie surface of the water remains 



the same, and causes the water to rise up the suction-pipe, and, 
raising the clacks, f, to enter the pump cylinder, filling it up nearly 
to the under side of the piston ; or if the apparatus is in a perfectly 
air-tight condition, it will rise quite up to the piston. 

When the crank has reached the position, p — 12, — that is, 
when it shall have described a semi-revolution, — the piston itself 
will likewise be at the highest point of its stroke, and, in this 
position, all the space left behind it in the body of the pump will 
be filled with water; if now the crank, continuing its rotation, 
makes a second semi-revolution, the piston will descend, and, 
pressing upon the water below it, will cause the clacks, f, to 
shut. Now, as the water is incompressible, it must find an exit, 
or else prevent the descent of the piston ; and it therefore" raises 
the bucket-clacks, i, thus opening up for itself a passage through 
the piston, h, above which it then lodges. But as the piston-rod, 
j, is of a large diameter, and therefore occupies a considerable 
space in the pump cylinder, a part of the water must necessarily 
escape through the outlet, g, in such a manner that, when the 
piston shall have reached the bottom of its stroke, there will not 
remain in the pump cylinder more than half the quantity of water 
which was contained in it when the piston was at the top of its 
stroke. 

Such is the effect produced by the first turn of the crank, which 
corresponds to a double stroke of the piston — that is, an ascent and 
a descent. 

At the second turn, when the piston again rises, it sucks up, as 
it were, anew, a volume of water about equal to the length of 
cylinder through which it passes, because the suction-clacks, f, 
which were shut, now open again, and the bucket-clacks, i, which 
were open during the descent, are now shut by the upward move- 
ment of the piston. 

During this stroke, all the water which previously remained above 
the piston, finds itself forced to pass off through the pipe, g, so 
that, with this arrangement of piston and rod, or plunger, of large 
diameter, it follows that, at each up-stroke of the piston, the quan- 
tilv of water which rises into the pump is equal to the length of 
cylinder through which the piston passes, the half of which quantity 
rises in the discharge-pipe during tho descent, and the other half 
during the subsequent ascent of the piston, and the jet is conse- 
quently rendered almost continuous and uniform. 

When, on the contrary, the piston-rod is made very small iu 
diameter, as in ordinary pumps (fig. 6), the discharge of the water 
only takes place during the ascent of the piston, and it is conse- 
quently intermittent. 

In a pump, as in all other machines in wlrch an alternate rec- 
tilinear is derived from a continuous rotatory motion, by means 
of a crank and connecting-rod, the spaces passed through iu a 
straight line by the piston do not correspond to the angular 
spates described by the crank-pin ; in fact, it will be seen from 
the diagram, fig. 6, that if the crank-pin is supposed to describe 
a series of equal arcs, beginning from the point, 0, tho correspond- 
ing distances, 0' 1', 1' 2', 2' 3', passed through by the piston will 
not be uniform ; very small at the commencement of tho stroke, 
they will gradually increase towards tho middle, after passing 
which they will similarly decrease whilst the piston approaches 
the other end of its stroke. The successive positions of tlm 



140 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



piston mav be obtained by describing with each of the points, 
1. 2. 3, 4, upon the circumference traced by 'the crank-pin as cen- 
tres, and with a radius equal to the length of the connecting-rod, a 
series of arcs or circles cutting the vertical, passing through the 
centre, p, in the points, 3 , I s , 2 2 , which indicate upon this line the 
various po-itions of the point of attachment, ?, of the connecting- 
rod to the piston-rod: these points are then repeated at 0', 1', 2', 
on the same line, at distances from the points, 2 , l 2 , 2\ equal to 
the length of the piston-rod, measured from the point, I, to the 
bottom of the piston. 

It will be easily understood, that, in consequence of this irre- 
gularity in the motion of the piston, the force and volume of the 
jet of water will vary throughout the whole stroke. We have 
endeavoured to show the nature of this variation in the diagram, 
fig. 7, which represents the comparative volumes of the jet of water 
at successive periods for a single-acting pump, such as the one in 
fig. 6. 

This diagram is constructed by laying off upon any line, x y, as 
man}* equal parts as we have taken in divisions on the circle de- 
scribed by the crank-pin; then through each of these points, as 1,2, 
3. 4. drawing perpendiculars to x y. As during the ascent of the 
piston from to 12 (figs. 6 and 7) there is no discharge, as 
the piston only sucks up the water, there is nothing to indicate 
upon these first divisions ; as soon, however, as the crank-pin passes 
the highest point, and the piston begins to descend, it will pro- 
duce the jet of water; it is considered then, that when it has 
passed through the first rectilinear space, 12' to 11', the quamitv 
of water forced out by it may be represented by its base multiplied 
by the height, 11' — 12'. It is this distance which is set off from 
13 to o, upon the perpendicular drawn through the point, 13; in 
the same manner, when the piston descends from 11' to 10', it is 
also taken as represented by its base multiplied by the height, 
11' — 10', which last is therefore set off from the point, 14 to b. It 
will be seen from this, that, in proceeding with the diagram, it is 
simply necessary to set off upon each of the perpendiculars drawn 
through the points of division, 15, 16, 17, the successive distances 
passed through by the piston during its descent, so as to represent 
intelligibly the actual volumes of water discharged for each portion 
of the stroke, since these volumes are proportional to the distances 
passed through by the piston, the section of the cylinder remaining 
constant. 

If, through the various points, a, b, c, rf, fig. 7, obtained in this 
manner, we trace a curve, we shall obtain the outline of a surface 
which we have distinguished by a flat shade, and which will give 
a good idea of the amounts of water discharged in correspondence 
with any position of the crank. Ou continuing the rotation of 
the crank, the piston next ascends and sucks up the water, 
consequently the jet of water is interrupted during this up- 
stroke, but recommences on the down-stroke due to the sub- 
sequent part of the revolution; the quantity of water then 
discharged is indicated in fig. 7, by a curve equal to the first, 
and on which the same points are distinguished by the same 
letters. 

To avoid this irregularity in the discharge, pumping apparatus 
is sometimes constructed with two, or with three, distinct cylinders, 
in which the disposition of the pistons is such, that the points of 



attachment to the several crank-pins divide the circle described by 
them into two or three equal parts. 

Figure 8 represents a geometrical diagram of the performance 
of a two-cylinder pump ; it is evident that the product of each of 
the pistons is alternately the same, since one descends whilst the 
other rises ; it is thus that one of the pistons, having produced a 
jet corresponding to, and expressed by, the curve, a' b' d, the other 
one immediately afterwards produces a jet, expressed by the curve, 
abed; so that this diagram only differs from fig. 7, in that the 
unuccupied intervals, from to 12, and 24 to 12, in the latter, are 
in the former filled up by an equal figure, covered by an equal flat 
shade. 

This diagram of the performance of a two-cylinder pump may 
also be considered as representing that of the pump, fig. 1, which, 
because of its trunk piston-rod, acts as a double-acting pump, as 
already explained. 

Fig. 9 represents the diagram of the performance of a three- 
cylinder pump, of which the pistons, h, h', h 3 , represented, for 
convenience' sake, as in the same cylinder, occupy the positions 
corresponding to those of the three crank-pins, 0, 0', 0', as placed 
at the angles of an equilateral triangle, inscribed in the circle 
described by them with the centre, p. In consequence of this 
disposition, there are at one time two pistons ascending and one 
descending, and at another time, on the contrary, only one 
ascending and two descending. It is easy to represent the com- 
bined performance of these pumps in a diagram, by using different 
colours, or different depths of shade, for the performance of each, 
as dependent upon the successive positions, 1, 2, 3, 4, taken up by 
their -successive crank-pins. By this means all confusion will be 
avoided, and it will be necessary to find the positions, s, x , x\ of 
the attachment of the connecting-rod to the piston-rod upon the 
vertical line passing through the centre, p, only as for one cylinder, 
as the distances will be the same for all, being merely placed at 
different parts of the diagram. 

In the diagram, fig. 10, we have laid down the performance of 
each of the three pumps, supposing them all to be of the same 
diameter, and taking care, when two pumps are discharging to- 
gether, to add together their performance ; thus, for example, when 
one of the pistons elevates a quantity of water, corresponding to 
the perpendicular, 13 a, that which is also discharging at the same 
time furnishes a quantity expressed by the distance, a a' ; conse- 
quently, the total volume of the discharge at this instant is repre- 
sented by the total height, 13a' ; when, on the other hand, only one 
of the three pumps discharges, whilst the pistons of the other 
two are ascending, as in fig. 9, the volume discharged is represented 
by a single length of perpendicular, such as 18/. Now, it will be 
observed, that it is precisely at the moment when only one pump 
is discharging that it gives out its maximum performance ; from 
which it follows, that the jet of water is continuous, and almost 
uniform throughout its duration, as will be very evident from a 
consideration of the diagram, fig. 10, the outline of which is detei- 
mined by perpendiculars, or ordinates, reaching nearly to the 
straight line, m n, throughout. 

To compare the combined effect of a three-cvlinder pump with 
that of two or of three double-acting pumps, we have, in figs. 8 an<5 
11, repeated the corresponding diagrams for the .wo last arrange 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



141 



ments ; and it will be remarked, that although, with cylinders of 
an equal sectional area, we necessarily obtain a much larger dis- 
charge, yet the regularity of volume is not so great as in the 
previous example. 



STEAM MOTORS. 

HIGH-PRESSURE EXPANSIVE STEAM-ENGINE. 

Plates XXXVIII., XXXIX., and XL. 

407. When the steam generated in a boiler is led into a vase or 
cylinder which is hermetically closed, it acts with its entire expansive 
force upon the sides and ends of the cylinder, so that, if this en- 
closes a diaphragm, or piston, capable of moving through the cylin- 
der in an air-tight manner, the force of the steam, in seeking to 
enlarge its volume, will make the piston move. It is in this way 
that a mechanical effect is derived from the expansive action of the 
steam, and it is on the same principle that the generality of steam- 
engines are constructed. 

Thus, in most apparatus to which this name is given, the action 
of the steam is caused to exert itself alternately on the upper and 
under surface of the piston, enclosed in the cylinder, thereby caus- 
ing it to make a rectilinear back and forward movement or stroke. 
(187.) 

Steam-engines are said to be low or high pressure engines, 
according as the tension of the steam is only of about 1 atmosphere 
on the one hand, or of 2, 3, and upwards, on the other. Low- 
pressure engines are generally condensing engines, and high-pres- 
sure ones non-condensing; so that the terms, low pressure or con- 
densing, high pressure or non-condensing, are used indiscriminately, 
although, in modern engineering practice, what are called high- 
pressure condensing engines are extensively employed. 

When the steam is made to act alternately above and below the 
piston, the engine is said to be double-acting; and of this description 
are most of those employed at the present day ; but if the steam 
acts only on one side of the piston, as is the case in many mine- 
pumping engines, the engine is called a single-acting one. 

Low-pressure engines are generally also condensing engines; 
that is to say, that after the steam has exerted its expansive action 
upon the piston, and is on its way out of the cylinder, it passes into 
a chamber immersed in cold water, and termed a condenser, where 
it is condensed or reduced to the state of water. This condensa- 
tion produces a partial vacuum in the cylinder, and consequently 
considerably diminishes the resistance to the movement of the 
piston. 

In high-pressure engines, the steam which has produced its effect 
upon the piston escapes directly to the atmosphere, so that the pis- 
ton has always to overcome a resistance equal to one atmosphere, 
or about 15 lbs. per square inch, acting in a direction opposite to 
its motion. 

Steam-engines are further distinguished as expansive and non- 
expansivo ; of the latter description arc those wherein the steam 
enters the cylinder throughout the entire stroke of the piston ; so 
that tho pressure is uniform, since the volume of steam of n given 
pressure which enters is always equal to the space passed through 
by the piston. 



In expansive engines, on the contrary, the steam is only allowed 
to enter the cylinder during a portion of the stroke ; so that the 
expansive power of the steam is called into action during the 
remainder of the movement. 

The machine detailed in Plates XXXVIII., XXXIX., and XL., 
is a high-pressure engine, with a variable expansion valve. 

Fig. 1, Plate XXXVIII., represents an external elevation or front 
view of the machine, the frame of which consists of a hollow column, 
with lateral openings. 

Fig. 2 is a horizontal section, taken at the height of the line, 
1—2. 

Fig. 3 is an elevation of a fragment of the lower part of the 
column. 

Fig. 4 is another horizontal section, taken at the line, 3 — 4; and 
fig. 5 is an elevation of the capital of the column. 

Figs. 6 and 7 are diagrams, relating to the movement of the 
governor, with its balls. 

Fig. 8, Plate XXXIX., represents a vertical section, 'taken 
through the axes of the column and the steam cylinder, at the plane, 
5 — 6, parallel to that of the fly-wheel. • 

Fig. 9 is another vertical section, at right angles to the preceding 
figure. 

And, finally, fig. 10 is a horizontal section, taken at the broken 
line, 7—8—9—10. 

This machine consists of a cast-iron cylinder, a, truly bored out, 
and enclosing the piston, b. On one side of the cylinder are cast 
the passages, a, b, by which the steam enters alternately above and 
below the piston. These passages are successively covered over 
by a cup or valve, d, the details of which are given in figs. 28 to 
31, Plate XL.; and the valve is itself contained in the cast-iron 
chamber, e, called the valve casing, and communicating with a 
second chamber, f, called the expansion-valve casing ; it is into 
this latter chamber that the steam is first conducted by the pipe, 
g, from the boiler. The communication between the two valve 
casings is intercepted for short periods during the action of the 
machine, by the expansion valve, h, detailed in figs. 38 to 41' 
Plate XL. 

The vertical rod, i, of the piston, b, is attached at its upper ex- 
tremity to a short cross pin, e 2 , which connects it to the wrought- 
iron connecting-rod, J, hung on the pin, /, of the crank, k ; this is 
adjusted and keyed upon the extremity of the horizontal shaft, l, 
which carries on one side the fly-wheel, in, and on tho other the 
eccentrics, n, o, p. The first of these eccentrics is intended to ac- 
tuate the distributing valve, d, the rod, g, of which is connected to 
it by the intermediate adjustable rod, n'. The second works the 
expansion valve, h, by means of the rods, o' and h; and. finally, the 
third eccentric, p, gives an alternate movement to the piston or 
plunger, Q, of the feed-pump, R. 

The steam cylinder is boiled in a firm and solid manner, by 
its upper flanges, to the top of the hollow cast-iron plinth or pe- 
destal, s, on which also rests, and is bolted, the column, r. The 
pedestal is square; and, at. the corners of its base, lugs are cast, 
by means of which it is firmly bolted down to a solid stone 
foundation. 

The column, -r, is cast, hollow, and with four large lateral open- 
ings diametrically opposite to each other, theu - obiecf hein& t\> 



142 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



diminish the weight of the column, and to afford the necessary 
passages for the introduction of the various pieces when being put 
together, or when taken down. This column also serves as a 
frame for the entire machine, and above the capital is placed a cast- 
iron pillow-block, u, furnished with bearing brasses to receive the 
principal journal of the first motion shaft, as well as the supporting 
brackets, k, k', of the spindle, /, of the ball governor. To its inner 
6ide are also bolted the two supports, i, of the parallel motion, and 
guide, j, of the valve-yod, g. 

ACTION OF THE MACHINE. 

408. Before proceeding further, we shall give some idea of the 
general action of the machine. As already mentioned, the steam 
is generated in a boiler, such, for example, as that represented in 
Plate XIV. (189), and is conducted by the steam-pipe, g, into 
the first chamber, f ; when the valve, h, in this chamber uncovers 
tue orifice, or port, d, the steam finds its way into the valve-casing, 
s, whence it passes either to the upper or to the lower end of 
the cylinder, accordingly as the valve, d, uncovers one or other 
of the two ports or passages, a, b. Now, when the piston is, 
for example, at the top of its stroke, the passage, a, is almost fully 
open, whilst the channel, b, is in communication with the exit 
orifice, c, from which the two pipes, e*, conduct it to the atmo- 
sphere. If, on the introduction of the steam to the cylinder, it has 
a pressure of, say four atmospheres, it follows that it will act upon 
the piston with all this force to cause it to descend ; since, how- 
ever, the lower part of the cylinder is at this time in communica- 
iion with the external atmosphere, there is a resistance equal to 
»ne atmosphere opposed to its movement, therefore the actual 
effective pressure acting on the top of the piston will be equal to 
three atmospheres. 

It is the same when the piston reascends ; the valve uncovers the 
port of the passage, b, to allow the steam to enter the lower end 
of the cylinder, whilst the port, a, is put in communication with the 
exit orifice, c, by the cup of the valve, to give an outlet for the 
steam which has just acted on the upper side of the piston during 
the down-stroke. 

It is to be remarked, that if the introduction of the steam takes 
place during the entire up-and-down stroke of the piston, which 
might be the ease if the steam-pipe, g, communicated directly with 
the valve-casing, e, and if the valve, n, kept one of the ports unco- 
vered throughout the entire stroke, the pressure of the steam would 
remain constant; in such case, it would be said that the machine 
was a high-pressure non-expansive engine — that is to say, that it 
worked with a full allowance of steam. 

In the machine, however, which at present occupies our atten- 
tion, the steam first introduces itself into the casing, f, the valve, 
h, of which, at each stroke, closes the passage, d, communicating 
with the second casing, e, before the piston reaches either end of 
its stroke. It follows, that the steam contained in the cylinder 
at the time of closing the passage, d, must augment in volume or 
expand, whilst its pressure will consequently decrease during the 
remaining advance of the piston: the engine is then said to be 
working expamicely ; and in this case a quantity of steam is 
Appended for each stroke, equal only to a third, half, or two- 



thirds of the capacity of the cylinder, according as the intro- 
duction of the steam is intercepted at one-third, one-half, or two- 
thirds of the stroke ; it is the ratio between the quantity of full 
steam-pressure introduced, and the entire capacity of the cylin- 
der, which expresses the degree of expansion at which the engine 
works. 

PARALLEL MOTION. 

409. The rectilinear alternate movement of the piston is trans- 
formed into a continuous circular motion on the first motion shaft, 
l, by the intervention of the connecting-rod, j, and crank, k ; but 
with this arrangement there is naturally a lateral strain upon the 
top of the piston-rod, I, and in order that its movement may be 
perfectly rectilinear and vertical, it is jointed to a system of articu- 
lated levers, forming what is termed a parallel motion. 

This mechanism is composed of two wrought iron rods, v (figs. 
1, 4, and 8), which oscillate on the fixed centres, i, and are articu- 
lated at their opposite extremities to the levers, x, near their middle, 
by means of the pin, n. The levers, x, are also of wrought-iron, 
and are jointed at one end to the cross pin, e 2 , fig. 9, of the piston- 
rod end ; and at the other to the rod, t, attached to a cross spindle, 
o o, and oscillating in bearings, in a couple of cast-iron brackets, z, 
bolted to the lower part of the frame. 

The head of this last-mentioned oscillating rod is detailed sepa- 
rately, in figs. 21 and 22, Plate XL. It has brasses, to embrace 
the journal of the spindle, p*, by which it is connected to the ends 
of the levers, x. 

The combination of this mechanism is such, that the point of 
attachment, e, constantly moves in a straight line throughout the 
entire stroke. It may be designed on geometrical principles, as 
indicated in the diagrams, figs. 8 and 11. To this effect we have 
supposed, that after having drawn the horizontal line, e 2 p, and the 
vertical, e e 3 , distances, e e 2 and e e 3 , are set off on the latter, equal 
to the half stroke of the piston, or to the radius of the crank ; them 
with the points, e e s , describe an arc, with a radius, e p, equal to the 
length of the lever, x, which is taken at pleasure, but should never 
be less than the stroke of the piston. If we next lay off this 
distance from e 2 to p 2 , the space, p p 2 , will express the amount of 
oscillation of the rod, y, the centre of oscillation, o, of which we 
place below, on the vertical line, drawn at an equal distance from 
and between the two points, p, p 2 . We next fix the point, n, of 
attachment of the rods, v, to the lever, x. This point, n, during 
the movement of the parallel motion, necessarily describes a circu- 
lar arc, of which it is requisite to find the centre. In investigating 
this problem, it is to be observed that, whatever may be the posi- 
tion of the lever, the point, n, is always at an equal distance from 
the extremity, p, or the other one, e. If, then, w 7 e in succession 
draw the lines, p e, p 1 e\ p 2 e 2 , p 3 e 3 , indicating the different posi- 
tions of the lever, corresponding to those, e, e 1 , e 2 , e 3 , of the piston- 
rod end, we shall, on each of these lines, obtain the several posi- 
tions, n, n\ 7J 2 , n 3 , by laying off on them either of the distances, 
pn or en. We can then very easily find the centre of the arc 
passing through these points. (10.) 

Fig. 10 represents the diagram of an analogous parallel motion, 
but one in which the rods, v, are so disposed, that their point of 
attachment is exactly in the middle of the levers, x ; ar d in this 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



143 



case, their axis of oscillation lies in a plane passing through the 
vertical axis, e e 3 . 



DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION. 

STEAM CYLINDER. 

410. The cylinder is cast in one piece with its bottom cover and 
lateral steam passages. As it should be bored with great care, so 
as to be perfectly cylindrical in the interior, a central opening is 
made in the bottom for the passage of the spindle of the boring 
tool ; this opening, however, is afterwards closed by the small 
cover, a 3 , cemented at its junction surfaces, and bolted down to the 
bottom of the cylinder. The upper end of the cylinder is closed 
by a cast-iron cover, a', which is formed into a stuffing-box in the 
centre, to embrace the piston-rod, which works steam-tight through 
it. The packing is compressed or forced down for this purpose 
by a gland (140), bolted to the stuffing-box, and hollowed out at 
the top to receive the lubricating oil. The valve-face, on the out- 
side of the cylinder, and on which the valve works, is planed very 
carefully, so as to be a true plane throughout. The same is done 
with the valve-casing at the flanges, where it is fitted to the valve- 
face. 

PISTON. 

The piston (figs. 8, 9, 19, and 20) is composed of two cast-iron 
plates, which have an annular space between them for the recep- 
tion of two concentric cast or wrought-iron or brass packing-rings, 
c'. These rings are cut through at one side, and are placed one 
within the other in such a manner, that the breaks in each are 
diametrically opposite to each other; then- thickness gradually 
diminishes on each side towards the break, and they are hammered 
on the inside in a cold state, which renders them elastic, giving 
them a constant tendency to open. Since the diameter of the 
outer ring is equal to that of the cylinder when the two edges are 
brought together, the elasticity of the inner ring, combining with 
that of the outer one, tending constantly to enlarge them, it 
follows that there must be a perfect coincidence between the 
outside of the ring and the inside of the cylinder throughout the 
whole extent of the latter. Thus the contact of the piston with 
the sides of the cylinder only. takes place through the packing- 
ring, and not by the plates, which are of a slightly less diameter. 
To prevent the passage of the steam through the break in the 
outer packing-ring, a rectangular opening is made in the two edges 
of the ring, and in this is placed a small tongue-piece, a*, screwed 
to the inner ring, this piece serving to close or break the joint 
without preventing the play of the rings. The principal plate of 
the piston is fixed to the piston-rod by means of a key (fig. 9)- 
The piston-rod is consequently of increased diameter at its lower 
end. The upper end of the piston-rod is likewise fixed in a socket, 
i', (figs. 9 and 13,) which terminates in two vertical branches to 
receive the middle of the spindlo, e a , which is held down by 
means of a key. 

CONNECTING-ROD AND CRANK. 

411. Tiie connecting-rod, j, (figs. 8, 9, 1-1, and 15,) terminates 
at its lower end in a fork, by means of which it is jointed to tho 



spindle, e\ brasses being fitted in either side, and secured by bridle- 
pieces passing under them and keyed above. The fork is jointed 
to the spindle, e 2 , on each side of the piston-rod head, sufficient 
space, however, being left between them for the levers, x. The 
head of the connecting-rod (figs. 15 and 16) is likewise fitted with 
brasses to embrace the pin,/, of the crank; these brasses are 
tightened up by means of the pressure screw,/'. 

The crank, k, like the connecting-rod, j, is of wrought-iron, 
being adjusted on the end of the first motion shaft, and secured to 
it by a key. This crank is very often made of cast-iron in sta- 
tionary engines, but in marine and locomotive engines it is gene- 
rally forged, so as to be better suited for resisting severe strains 
and shocks. 

'The first motion shaft, l, is likewise either of cast or wrought- 
iron. In the notes, we have already given tables and rules for 
determining the respective dimensions of this detail. It is not 
only supported by the brasses of the pillow-block, u, but also by 
those of a similar one, fixed, we shall suppose, upon the wall 
which divides the engine-house from the workshop or factory. It 
should always be larger in diameter where it receives the fly- 
wheel, M. 

FLY-WHEEL. 

412. The fly-wheel is of cast-iron — of a single piece in the pre- 
sent example, because its diameter is only 3 - 5 metres. When of 
larger dimensions, the rim and the arms are cast in separate pieces, 
and then bolted together. For wheels of from 5 to 8 metres in 
diameter, the rim is made in several pieces, and the arms are also 
cast separate from the boss, and all the parts are then bolted 
together. The arms are sometimes made of wrought-iron of small 
dimensions, with the view of reducing the weight near the centre, 
without reducing the effect of the wheel. 

FEED-PUMP. 

413. This pump serves to force into the boiler a certain quantity 
of water, to replace that which is converted into steam and expend- 
ed in actuating the engine. It is a simple force-pump, consisting 
of a cylinder, r, in which works the solid piston or plunger, q. 
The piston is not in contact with the sides of the pump cylinder, 
and the latter consequently only requires to be turned out at its 
upper part, where it is formed into a stuffing-box and guide for 
the plunger, being necessarily air-tight. 

On one side of the pump is cast a short pipe, to which is attach- 
ed the valve-box, r, generally made of brass. To the lower part 
of this is secured the suction-pipe, T', communicating with a cistern 
of water, and having a stopcock, s', upon it, like the one repre- 
sented in detail in Plate XVII. To one side of the valve-box is 
likewise fitted tho discharge-pipe, carrying a similar stopcock, s"; 
this last pipe is generally passed through the pipe which carries 
oil' the waste steam, so that the water may take up some of the 
heat of this, steam before entering the boiler. 

It will he seen, from figs. !> and 23, that this valve-box contains 
two valves, s', s*J the lower one of which, S 1 , is the suction \alve, 
and the upper one, v. is the discharge-vahe. The latter is much 
larger in diameter than the former, so that its seat may he wide 

enough for the lower valve to he passed through it. The upper 



144 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



end of the valve-box is closed by a cover, which is firmly held 
down by the screw, r', and iron bridle, q'. 

Both valves are made conical at the seat, as in fig. 24, so as to 
fit more easily. The under part of the valve is cylindrical, so as 
to guide it ; but it is cut away at the sides, to allow of the passage 
of the water when it rises. It is from the appearance this gives 
that these valves are called lantern takes. 

The pump cylinder is further furnished with a safety-valve, s 3 , 
of which fig. 25 is a detailed view. The object of this is to permit 
the air to escape, when it accumulates within to such an extent as 
to destroy the action of the pump. This valve is horizontal, and 
is kept in its place by the bell-crank lever, w, upon the horizontal 
arm of which is suspended a weight, sufficient to counterbalance 
the internal pressure. (195.) * 

The top of the plunger is surmounted by a small rod, t, adjust- 
able in the socket which terminates the long wrought-iron rod, p', 
figs. 9 and 18, the upper extremity of which is formed into a collar, 
embracing the circular eccentric, p. (142.) 

The action of this pump is analogous to that of the pumps of 
which we have already given a description. Thus, when the 
machine is working, and the stopcocks, s' and s 2 , are open, the 
water rises from the cistern by the pipe, r', the valve, s', opening, 
to give it passage into the body of the pump, into which it flows as 
long as the piston ascends. When, however, the piston descends, 
the water is driven back, and, closing the lower valve, s', necessarily 
opens the upper one, s 2 , and proceeds along the discharge-pipe to 
the boiler. The quantity of feed-water is regulated by means of 
the stopcocks, and may be entirely shut off by closing them ; but 
then, in such case, as the eccentric, p, with its rod, p', will continue 
to move, it will be necessary to loosen the plunger, q, which is 
done by unscrewing the thumb-screw, v, by which the piston-rod 
is attached to the eccentric rod, in such a manner that the socket, 
b 3 , fig. 18, at the end of the eccentric rod, p', will simply slide up 
and down the rod, without moving it. 

BALL OR ROTATING PENDULUM GOVERNOR. 

414. The object of this piece of mechanism is the regulation of 
the velocity of the machine, in proportion to the resistances to be 
overcome ; and, accordingly, to this effect it opens or shuts a valve, 
c 3 , placed in the steam-pipe, g, and called a throttle-valve. Just 
as a freer or narrower passage is left for the steam by the opening 
or closing of this throttle-valve, which is contained in an especial 
box, to facilitate adjustment, and is actuated by a rod, passing 
through a stuffing-box at the side — so is the quantity of steam 
which finds its way to the cylinder more or less ; and, similarly, the 
consequent acceleration or retardation of the motion of the piston, 
as well as of the first motion shaft in connection with it. 

It is composed, as seen in fig. 1, of a vertical spindle, I, stepped, 
at its lower extremity, in the end of a small bracket support, k', and 
is held higher up by a second bracket, k. To its upper end are 
jointed two symmetrical side rods, m', each terminating in cast- 
iron or brass spheres, o'. These side rods are also connected by 
means of the intermediate links, I', to the wrought-iron or copper 
socket or ring, i', moveable upon the main spindle. 

A rotatory motion being given to the vertical spindle, and the 
balls being carried round with it, will have a constant tendency 



to fly off from the vertical line, by reason of the centrifugal force 
due to the rotation (262) ; as long as the rotative velocity remains 
the same, the balls will tend to occupy the mean position indicated 
upon the drawing, and corresponding to the normal velocity; that 
is to say, the velocity to which the apparatus is regulated. When 
this velocity is exceeded — in consequence, as we may suppose, for 
example, of some parts of the machinery being put out of gear — 
the balls will fly asunder, and occupy the extreme position, o 2 , 
indicated upon fig. 6. In this position of the balls, the socket, i', 
will be lifted up. Now this socket is embraced, at its circular 
groove, by the prongs of the forked lever, j, fig. 9, which is con- 
nected to the vertical rod, ft, and this, by a suite of levers and bell- 
cranks, g\ g*, g*, g*, and g- 6 , communicates with the throttle-valve, 
c 3 , drawn with its box, a 2 , in figs. 26 and 27. It follows, from the 
combination of these connections, that, as the socket rises, the 
valve will be shut. If, on the contrary, the velocity should be 
reduced below the proper point, owing to an increased resistance, 
the balls will approach each other, and assume the position given 
in fig. 7. The socket, i', will descend, and, consequently, the 
throttle-valve will become more open, so as to allow a greater 
quantity of steam to enter the valve-casing, and thence pass into 
the cylinder. The extreme positions of the governor arms, beyond 
which they cannot go, are determined by the guides, wi 2 , fixed upon 
the spindle, I. 

The motion of this spindle is derived from the first motion shaft, 
l, by means of the grooved pulley, p\ fixed upon the intermediate 
spindle, r 2 , placed close to the capital of the column, t, and by the 
bevil-wheels, ?- 3 , receiving their motion from the pulley, r 4 , so that 
a constant ratio is maintained between the rate of the machine and 
that of the governor. 

The geometrical diagram, figs. 6 and 7, will sufficiently explain 
the respective positions of each of the pieces of the pendulum, and 
will show how the rising of the socket upon the spindle is caused 
by, and is in proportion to, the flying asunder of the balls, accord- 
ing to the number of revolutions of the spindle, and the length of 
the suspending arms. 



MOVEMENTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND EXPAN- 
SION VALVES. 

DISTRIBUTION VALVE. 

415. We have seen that the valve, d, represented in different 
positions in figs. 28 and 31, and in horizontal section, fig. 32, 
is attached, by its rod, g, to the vertical rod, n', which is joined to 
the rod, n 2 , of the circular eccentric, n, figs. 33 and 34. When, 
as was customary until lately, the centre of the eccentric lies in a 
radius perpendicular to the direction of the crank, the movements 
of the steam piston and valve are different to each other — that is 
to say, when the crank passes from the left horizontal to the right 
horizontal position, the piston makes a corresponding rectilinear 
movement ; the eccentric, however, passes from the lower extremity 
of the vertical line, drawn through the centre of the first motion 
shaft, to the upper extremity, or vice versa, and consequently gives 
the valve a rectilinear movement quite different to that of the pis- 
ton, in such a manner that, when the latter is at the middle of its 
stroke, the valve, on the other hand, is at the end, and the steam- 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



145 



ports are consequently fully open, to give the steam the freest 
passage into the cylinder. 

Whilst the piston is accomplishing its stroke in one direction, 
the valve moves up or down, and returns again to its central po- 
sition, the part which it covered being opened and again shut; 
when, however, the crank makes two fourths of a revolution in 
different directions, the piston rises and falls half a stroke each 
way, whilst the valve makes a single rectilinear movement in one 
direction. 

Finally, for each of these movements, whilst the velocities of the 
piston are increasing from the commencement towards the middle 
of its stroke, those of the valve are decreasing, and reciprocally. It 
therefore follows, that the maximum space passed through by the 
piston, for a given portion of a revolution of the crank, corresponds 
to the minimum passed through by the valve. 

LEAD AND LAP OF THE VALVE. 

416. Of late years, engineers have recognised the advantage of 
inclining the radius of the eccentric, with regard to the radius of the 
crank, instead of placing them perpendicular to one another, in such 
a manner that, at the dead points — that is, the extreme high and 
low positions of the piston — the valve shall already have passed 
the middle of its stroke to a slight extent ; it is this advance of the 
valve which is termed the lead. 

The effect of giving this lead to the valve, is to facilitate the 
introduction of the steam into the cylinder at the commencement 
of the piston's stroke, and at the same time to allow a freer exit 
to the waste steam on the other side of the piston ; a greater uni- 
formity of motion is in consequence obtained, whilst less force is 
lost. 

In order to avoid as much as possible the back pressure due to 
the slow exit of the waste steam, it is likewise customary, in addi- 
tion to the lead, to give the valve more or less lap ; that is to say, 
to make the width of that part of the valve which covers the ports, 
a, b, fig. 28, sensibly greater than that of the ports themselves. 

In explanation of the effects due to the lead and lap of the valve, 
we have, in fig. 35, given a geometrical diagram, indicating the 
relative positions of the crank, the piston, the eccentric, and of the 
valve. 

Let o o represent the radius of the crank ; with this distance as 
a radius, and with the centre, o, describe a semicircle, which divide 
into a certain number of equal parts. From each of the points of 
division, let fall perpendiculars upon the diameter, o c. The points 
of contact, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c, represent upon this diameter, considered 
as the stroke of the piston, the respective positions of the piston, 
corresponding to those, 2", 3 a , 4 a , &c, of the crank pin. It is un- 
necessary to take into account the length of the connecting-rod, 
which connects the latter to the piston, because, in the present case, 
the connecting-rod is supposed to be of an indefinite length, and 
to remain constantly parallel to itself, so that it cannot modify the 
results. 

With the centre, o, likewise describe a circle with a radius, 
o a\ equal to that of the eccentric, n. We have assumed the 
point, a', to bo the position the centre of the eccentric should 
have at the moment when the piston ; ,s at the end of its stroke — 



that is to say, at o ; the distance of this point, a', from the vertical 
m n, expresses the lead of the valve, and consequently the angle, 
mo a', is called the angle of lead. The position of the point, a! 
may likewise be obtained, after the following data are decided on — ■ 
namely, the height of the ports, a, b, fig. 28, the width, r s, of the 
flange of the valve, which is equal to the height of opening, t r 
which properly expresses the amount of lead given to the port 
augmented by twice the lap, together with the amount of the intro- 
duction of the steam to the cylinder, and the amount of opening, 
s' t', expressing the lead given to the escaping steam, and which is 
always greater than the former, so that the exit passages may be in 
communication as loDg as possible. 

The diameter of the eccentric, n, is equal to the height of the 
port, augmented by the width, r s, of the flange of the valve, and 
the difference which exists between the two amounts of lead, s' { 
and r I ; it is, then, with the half of this as radius that the circle, 
a' b' c' d', must be described ; and we then obtain the point, a, by 
setting off from the centre, o, to the right of the vertical, m n, a 
distance equal to the lead of introduction, r t, augmented by the lap. 
Starting from this point, a', we then divide this circle into as many 
equal parts as we previously divided the one into, described by the 
crank pin, and then through each of the points of division we draw 
perpendiculars to the vertical, m n. 

We further draw the straight line, a' g', parallel to m n, when 
the distance of the several points of division from this line will 
indicate the successive positions of the valve in relation to those 
of the piston. Thus, after having drawn the horizontals, r u, 
through the extreme point, r, of the valve, at the moment when 
the piston is at the extremity of its stroke, make l 2 — 1' equal to 
b l i 2 , and the point, 1', indicates how far the valve has descended 
during the time the piston has traversed the space, o 1, whilst the 
crank has described the first arc, o 1'. In like manner, set off 
the distances, c 1 c 2 , d 1 d\ &c, which correspond to the third and 
fifth divisions, reckoning from the horizontal line, r u, from i a to 3', 
and from 7i 3 to 5', on the verticals corresponding to the third and 
fifth positions of the piston, and consequently the positions, 3" 
and 5\ of the crank. It will then be seen that the valve con- 
tinues to descend until the moment the centre of the eccentric 
reaches the point,/', upon the horizontal line, of, corresponding 
to the sixth position, and the valve then wholly uncovers the 
port, a, as shown in fig. 29. During the continued revolution of 
the eccentric, on passing this point the distances of the points of 
division from the line, a' g', diminish, and the valve reascends, in 
such a manner as that, when the centre attains the point, p- — that 
is to say, when the crank shall have performed a semi-revolution, 
and the piston have arrived at 18, at the other end of its stroke— 
the valvo will occupy the position indicated in fig. 30. This 
figure shows that it uncovers the lower port, b, for the introduc- 
tion of the fresh steam, and the upper one, a, for the escape of 
the used steam. If the respective positions, 6', 7', 8', 9', &.O., of 
the valve, bo determined throughout the entire stroke, by setting 
off upon the verticals, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c, the distances of the points 
of division of the eccentric firona the Btraighl line, a' g', as already 
explained, a curve will bo formed, as at U 3' 6' 9' 18', which is a 
species of ellipse. This diagram haa the advantage of bringing 
into B single vie" the relative positions of the crank, piston, occon- 



1 48 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



trie, and valve, and facilitates the determination of the position of 
the valve, corresponding to any position of the piston. 

Thus, to obtain the position of the valve to correspond to that, 
y, of the steam-piston, it is sufficient to draw the vertical, y x', 
which will cut the curve in the point, v'. The distance, 1/ x', of 
this point, from the horizontal, t u', passing through the upper 
edge of the introduction port, a, shows how much of this is un- 
covered by the valve. It will be seen, also, that the curve is cut 
by the horizontal, t u, in the point, y 1 , which indicates the moment 
at which the valve closes the port. In this position the piston will 
only as yet have reached the point, y 1 , of its stroke ; and it has, 
consequently, to traverse the distance, ^18, before it can receive 
any more steam from the boiler, which shows that, with a valve 
which has lead and lap, we actually work the steam expansively to 
a slight extent. In the case before us, the steam is cut off at four- 
fifths of the stroke. 

It will be understood that, if the machine continues its action, 
the piston will retrace its stroke, the centre of the eccentric which 
had reached p will continue to ascend, and the valve will shortly 
attain the position indicated in fig. 31, this taking place as soon as 
the centre of the eccentric reaches the point, z. In this position, 
the ports, a, b, are completely open — the first to the exit aperture, 
the other to the introduction of the steam, whilst the valve is at 
the highest point of its stroke, as will also be found by continuing 
the curve, u 9' 18', of which the prolongation, 18' 24' 30', is exactly 
symmetrical with regard to the inclined line, u 18'. On the same 
diagram, fig. 35, we have delineated a second elliptic curve, 0' 9' 18', 
equal and parallel to the first, and which indicates the respective 
positions of the point, s', of the lower flange of the valve, in relation 
to the port, b, so as to have, at first sight, the respective positions 
of this second flange. This outline is evidently obtained by setting 
off the constant distance, r s', of the valve, fig. 28, upon the verti- 
cals, drawn through 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. 

It may be remarked, that the distance between the ports, a and 
b, is arbitrary. It is, however, advisable to reduce it as much as 
possible, in order to diminish the surface of the valve, and, conse- 
quently, the pressure of the steam acting on the back of it In 
all cases, it is necessary that the height of the exit port, c, should 
be greater than that of the introduction ports, by a quantity at 
least equal to the difference which exists between the lap and the 
lead, t' s' and I r. 

EXPANSION VALVE. 

417. The action of the expansion eccentric, o, is analogous to 
that of the ordinary valve eccentric, except that the position of its 
centre is not regulated in the same manner. 

We may observe, in the first place, that this eccentric is not 
immovably fixed upon the main shaft, l, as is the case with the 
preceding one. It is only attached to the adjustable collar-piece, 
p", figs. 36 and 37, by screws, w a . This arrangement allows of its 
throw being increased or diminished ; that is, of its centre being 
placed further from or nearer to that of the shaft, according to the 
rength of stroke which it is wished to give it. To this end, its 
central opening is oblong in shape, and the holes for the securing 
screws are oblong likewise. 

If the centre of this eccentric happens to be in the same direc- 



tion as the crank, the expansion valve, h — the rod, h, of which is 
guided by the socket-bracket, 7t*, attached to the pedestal, s, and 
drawn more detailed in fig. 43 — is wholly open when the piston is 
at the end of its stroke ; but we have supposed, as indicated in fig. 
35, that the centre of this eccentric is in the point, a*, upon the 
circle described with the centre, 0, and radius, l a*, of the eccentric, 
and that the valve does not therefore wholly uncover the entrance 
port, d, at this moment, so that the time of closing it may be later 
than would otherwise be the case. 

As in the preceding case, we divide this circle into equal parts, 
starting from the point, a* ; through the point, a*, draw a vertical 
line, and then set off on the various verticals, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., the 
distances of the points of division from this line, measuring these 
from the horizontal passing through the upper edge, r', of the 
valve, h ; we thus obtain a second elliptic curve, u m' n' j>', the 
inside of which is flat — tinted with a slightly stronger shade than 
the ellipse corresponding to the distribution valve, so as to render 
the diagram more distinct. This curve cuts the horizontal line 
drawn through the upper edge of the port, d, in the point, n, whkh 
indicates at what time the valve, h, closes the entrance port, fig. 39. 
It will be seen that this point corresponds to the position, b', of the 
steam-piston, thereby signifying that the cut-off takes place when 
the piston has performed no more than a fourth of its stroke. Con- 
tinuing the movement, it will be observed that the valve, h, rises 
higher and higher, so that it begins to uncover the entrance port a 
little before the piston reaches the end of its stroke ; but it is evi- 
dent that the steam cannot find its way into the cylinder at this 
point, for the distribution valve is in its turn closed, as soon as tho 
position, y y, is passed ; no inconvenience, therefore, will be caused 
by the fact of the valve, h, being open before reaching the end of 
its stroke, as indicated in figs. 38 and 40, and as shown also in the 
diagram, fig. 35. 

By varying the radius of the eccentric, 0, and the position of its 
centre relatively with the radius of the crank, it will be easily un- 
derstood, that within certain limits we can alter the time when the 
valve, h, opens and closes the entrance port, and are consequently 
enabled to vary the degree of expansion. 

Figures 41 and 42 show that the rod of the valve is attached to 
it by a T joint, which leaves the valve sufficiently free for the steam 
to press it constantly against the planed valve face ; and a similar 
adjustment is adopted with the distribution valve. 

The general explanations which we have given in the preceding 
pages, with reference to the construction and action of this engine, 
evidently apply to other systems, which merely differ in some of 
the arrangements and forms of the component pieces. Moreover, 
in our notes, the student will find the rules and tables concerned 
in the calculations and designs of these engines. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 

STEAAl-EXGDvES. 
LOW-PRESSURE CONDENSING ENGINE, WITHOUT EXPANSION VALVE. 

418. In those engines which are called low-pressure engines, 
the steam is produced at a temperature very little over that of 
boiling water, or 100° centigrade (212° Fahrenheit) — it is, in fact, 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



147 



generally 105° cent. — in which case the tension of the steani will 
sustain a column of mercury of 90 centimetres in height; that is to 
say, 14 centimetres above that due to atmospheric pressure. It is, 
consequently, equal to a pressure of 1-17 atmospheres, or 1-2 kilog. 
per square centimetre. It is for this pressure that what are gene- 
rally known as Watt's engines, without cut-off valves, are calculated ; 
and the one we have been examining is regulated upon this datum. 

There is, however, a great difference between the pressure of 
the steam in the boiler, and that to which the effective power of the 
machine is due. It is evident that a part of the pressure will be 
absorbed by the back pressure due to an imperfect vacuum, as well 
as by the friction of the piston, and other moving parts, and the 
leakage and condensation in the steam passages. So that, taking 
into consideration these various causes of loss, the effective force 
may be estimated at '5 kilog. only, per square centimetre, in the 
majority of engines, whilst it may reach, perhaps, - 65 kilog. in the 
most efficient. 

The rule for calculating the power of low-pressure steam-engines 
consists in — 

Multiplying the mean effective pressure of the steam upon ilie piston 
by the area of the latter, expressed in square centimetres, and the pro- 
duct by the velocity in metres per second. 

The result of this calculation will be the useful effect of the 
engine in kilogrammetres. 

To obtain the horses power, this result must be divided by 75. 



Thus, the diameter of the cylinder of a low-pressure non-expan- 
sive steam-engine being -856, and its section 5755 square centi- 
metres, if the effective pressure upon the piston is -63 kilog. per 
square centimetre, and the velocity 1 - 1076 — 

We have 

•63 x 5755 x 1-1076 = 401567 k. m. 

Whence — 

4015-67 -T- 75 = 53-54 H. P. 

But the effective pressure upon the piston is not always -63 
kilog. per square centimetre ; it is more frequently below than above 
this amount. It varies not only according to the power of the 
machine, but also according to the state of repair. Thus, some- 
times the effective pressure will not be more than -45 kilog. in 
small engines, whilst in large, powerful ones, it may at times reach 
•65 kilog. 

Single-acting engines, such as are employed in mines, are of the 
same dimensions as double-acting ones, but of only half the power. 
Thus, the cylinder of a low-pressure steam-engine, of 50 horses 
power, and only single-acting — that is to say, receiving the action 
of the steam during the descent only of the piston — is exactly the 
same as in a machine of 100 horses power, in which the steam acts 
alternately on both sides of the piston. 

In the following table, which applies to this kind of steam-engine, 
we have given the diameters and velocities of the steam-piston 
from 1 to 200 horses power. 



TABLE OF DIAMETERS, AREAS, AND VELOCITIES OF PISTONS, IN LOW-PRESSURE DOUBLE-ACTING STEAM-ENGINES, WITH 

THE QUANTITIES OF STEAM EXPENDED PER HORSE POWER, 



Horses 


Diameter 

of 

piston. 


Area of Piston. 


Length of 
stroke. 


Number 

of 

revolutions. 


Velocity of 

piston 
per second. 


Velocity of 

piston 
per minute. 


Effective 
pressure on 
the piston 
per square 
centimetre. 


Weight of 
steam expend- 
ed per horse 
power per hou? 


power. 


Total. 


Per 

horse power. 




cent. 


sq. m. 


sq. cent. 


m. 


per 1'. 


m. 


m. 


kilog. 


kilog. 


i 


•15 


•018 




181 


•52 


50 


•85 


51 


•49 


38-81 


2 


•21 


•036 




178 


•61 


42 


•86 


52 


•49 


38-77 


4 


•30 


•068 




171 


•76 


34 


•90 


54 


•49 


38-77 


6 


•35 


•098 




163 


•91 


31 


•94 


57 


•49 


38-72 


8 


•40 


•128 




160 


1-07 


27 


•96 


58 


•49 


38-72 


10 


•45 


•159 




159 


1-22 


24 


•98 


59 


•49 


38-64 


12 


•49 


•189 




157 


1-22 


24 


•98 


59 


•49 


38-64 


16 


•55 


•240 




150 


1-37 


22 


1-01 


60 


•50 


37-80 


20 


•61 


•292 




146 


1-52 


20 


1-02 


61 


•51 


37-38 


24 


•66 


•346 




144 


1-69 


18 


1-02 


61 


•52 


36-88 


30 


•73 


■414 




137 


1-83 


17 


1-04 


62 


•53 


36-04 


40 


•83 


•535 




134 


1-99 


16 


1-06 


64 


•53 


35-70 


50 


•91 


•658 




132 


2-13 


15 


1-07 


64 


•54 


35-32 


60 


1-00 


•779 




130 


2-28 


14 


1-07 


64 


•54 


34-9-1 


70 


1-07 


•903 




129 


2-44 


13 


1-06 


63 


•65 


34-3t> 


80 


1-14 


1-032 




129 


2-44 


13 


1-06 


63 


•56 


84-31 


90 


1-21 


1-138 




126 


2-59 


12 


1-04 


62 


•67 


3301 


100 


1-27 


1-264 




126 


2-59 


12 


104 


<i2 


•68 


32-97 


120 


1-39 


1-512 




126 


2-74 


*11 


1-00 


(iO 


-. f )!» 


31*99 


160 


1-60 


2-005 




125 


3-00 


10 


1-00 


60 


•60 


81*61 


200 


1-78 


2-480 


•124 


3-00 


10 


1-00 


60 


•61 


31*41 



DIAMETER OF THE PISTON. 

By means of the above table, we can, in a very simple manner, 
determine the diameter and velocity of the piston of a low-pressure 



double-acting steam-engine, supposing the steam to be o( the 
pressure, of ri7 atmospheres in the boiler, corresponding to .t 
column of mercury of 90 centimetres in height 



148 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Rule. — It is sufficient to obtain from the table the area of piston 
per horse power, and to multiply it by the number of horses power 
of the engine to be constructed, which will then determine the cor- 
responding area of piston. 

Example. — What should be the diameter of the piston of a low- 
pressure double-acting steam-engine of 25 horses power ? 

In the fourth column of our table, it will be seen that the area 
to be given to the piston should be 144 square centimetres per 
horse power for 24 to 26 horses, with a velocity of T02 m. per 
second. 

We have, therefore, 144 x 25 = 3600 sq. cent, for the total 
area of the piston. 

Whence — 

V3600 x -7854 = 67-7 cent 

Thus, the diameter of the piston must be -677 m. 

VELOCITIES. 

The velocities per second, and per minute, given in the seventh 
and eighth columns of the table, are what are generally adopted as 
the regular working rates in establishments and manufactories 
where steam-engines are employed, whatever may be the number 
of revolutions of the crank, or strokes of the piston, per minute, for 
this number varies according to the length of stroke which it is 
wished to give to the piston. Thus in stationary^engines, the stroke 
of the piston is generally longer ; and, therefore, fewer strokes are 
made per minute than in marine engines, since in these latter the 
engineer seeks, as much as possible, to reduce the height of the 
machinery ; and the stroke is, consequently, much shorter for the 
same amount of power. 

The length of stroke of the piston is regulated at pleasure by 
the constructor, according to what he may find most advantageous 
in the transmission of the power to the machinery ; and he calcu- 
lates so that the crank may make a few revolutions per minute 
more or less, without occasioning any very sensible difference in 
the velocity of the piston, with regard to the velocities laid down 
in the table. 

If, notwithstanding, it is wished to construct an engine to work 
with a velocity somewhat less, or somewhat greater, than that given 
in the table, it will evidently be necessary to take this difference 
into consideration, and to augment or diminish the area of the 
piston in proportion, so as always to obtain the required power. 
The proper amount of alteration may be determined by a very 
simple operation. 

Example. — Let it be proposed to construct our example engine 
of the effective power of 25 horses, with a velocity of piston of 1 
metre per second, in place of 1-02 m. 

It will be sufficient to calculate the following inverse propor- 
tion : — 

1 : 1-02 : : 144 sq. c. : x. 

Whence — 

x = 144 x 1-02 = 146-8 sq. c, 
the area, per horse power, to be given to the piston. 
Consequently, 

146-8 x 25 = 3675 sq. centimetres for the total area ; 
and 

V3675 "*■ '7854 = 68-4 cent., for the diameter of the piston. 



As complemental to this table, we have given the expenditure 
of steam corresponding to the different powers, as well as the de- 
ductions from this of the expenditure per horse power per hour. 
It will be observed from the last column, which gives the expendi- 
ture of steam, that it is considerably more for engines of small 
force than for more powerful ones — the reason of which is self-evi- 
dent. Thus, for an engine of 12 horses power, the expenditure of 
steam is 38-64 kilog. per horse power per hour ; whilst for an 
engine of 100 horses power, the expenditure only reaches 32-97 
for a like power in the same time. 

The expenditures or weights of the steam have been calculated 
from the following formula : — 

W = AxSxm>x2Nx60. 
A representing the area per horse power ; 
S, the stroke of the piston ; 

w, the weight of a cubic metre of steam at the pressure employed ; 
N, the number of revolutions. 

We need not here take into consideration the loss of steam re- 
sulting from leakage and condensation in the steam pipes and 
passages, which is generally estimated at one-tenth of the whole 
expenditure, as this item should evidently enter into the calcula- 
tions respecting the boiler. 

STEAM-PIPES AND PASSAGES. 

The section of the pipe which conveys the steam to the cylinder, 
as well as that of the introduction ports and passages, should be 
equal to a twentieth of the area of the piston. 

Whence it follows, that the diameter of the steam-pipe should 
be one-fifth of that of the cylinder. 

We must, however, remark, that the greater the velocity of the 
engine, the greater should be the sectional area of the steam-pipes 
and passages. It is because of this that, in locomotive engines, 
this section is sometimes made a tenth or a ninth of that of the 
cylinder, and at the same time the pressure of the steam is much 
greater, being generally equal to 5 or 6 atmospheres, and sometimes 
more, in such engines. 

AIR-PUMP AND CONDENSER. 

The stroke of the air-pump piston is equal to half that of the 
steam-piston ; and as it gives the same number of strokes, but does 
not discbarge in ascending, it can only raise a quantity of air and 
water equal to its own cubic contents, at each double stroke. 

Now, the sectional area of the pump is -2827 sq. m. ; and the 
length of stroke, "923 m. Its capacity is, therefore, '261 cubic 
metres ; and as twice the cubic contents of the steam-cylinder is 
2-125 cubic m., it follows that the pump discharges only a little 
more than an eighth of the volume sent out by the steam cylinder. 
This capacity is quite sufficient for the effective action of the 
engine. 

The sectional area of the condenser is the same as that of the 
pump, and its length is about 1 metre ; so that its capacity is, at 
least, as great. 

As the quantity of water to be injected into the condenser varies 
according to the temperature of the injection water, it will be well 
to know how to regulate it. 

To this end, the following rule will answer : — 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



149 



Rule. — Take the excess of the temperature of the steam over that 
of the injected water, and, after adding 550 to it, multiply it by tlie 
weight of steam to be condensed, and divide the product by the differ- 
ence of temperature between the discharged and the injected water. 
The quotient will be the weight of cold water to be injected. 

Thus, let w represent the weight of the steam to be condensed ; 
t, its temperature ; W, the weight of the cold water to be injected 
into the condenser; t', its temperature; and T, that of the water 
discharged : — 

We have 

_ W (550-H-T) 
T — t' 

If we make w = 26-16, V — 12° cent., T = 38°, and t = 105°, 
we shall have 

_ 26-16(550 + 105° ^-38°) 
W — 38° — 12° 

Whence, W = 621 kilog. or litres, for the expenditure per 
minute of cold water in the condenser. 

That is to say, the quantity of water to be injected into the con- 
denser should, in this case, be about 24 times the weight of the 
steam expended. 

If the discharged water were of the temperature of 55°, the cold 
water remaining at 12° — 

We should then have 

_ 26-16(550 + 105° — 55°) 
W ~ 55° — 12° 

Whence — 

W = 365 kilog. or litres. 

That is to say, that in the last case the water injected would not 
be more than 14 times the steam expended. 

But it is to be remarked, that in this case the force of the steam 
in the condenser, at a temperature of 55°, is equal to a column of 
mercury of 12-75 centimetres in height; whilst, in the first case, it 
would only be equal to a column of 5'5 cent. There is, therefore, 
an advantage in employing sufficient injection-water to produce the 
lower of the two temperatures. 

From the preceding results, we may deduce what follows : — 

First, That the stroke of the air-pump piston, in low-pressure 
double-acting steam-engines, is ordinarily equal to half the stroke 
of the steam-piston. 

Second, That the diameter of the air-pump piston is equal to 
about two thirds of the diameter of the steam piston ; and, conse- 
quently, its area is about half that of the latter. 

Third, That the effective displacement of the air-pump piston — 
that is, the cubic contents of the cylinder generated by the disc of 
the piston — is equal to an eighth, or at least a ninth, of the contents 
of the cylinder generated by a double stroke of the steam-piston. 

Fourth, That the capacity of the condenser is at least equal to 
that of the air-pump. 

Fifth, That the sectional area of the passage communicating 
between the condenser and air-pump is equal to one-fourth the area 
of its piston. 

Sixth, That the quantity of cold water to be injected into the 
condenser varies according to its temperature, and to the tempera- 
ture of the water discharged. 

Seventh, That this quantity is equal to 24 times tin weight of 



steam expended by the cylinder, where the mean temperature of 
the cold water is 12°, and that of the water of condensation 38°, 
which are generally what exist in low-pressure double-acting 
engines. 

COLD-WATER AND FEED PUMPS. 

The capacity of the cold-water pump should be the 24th or 18th 
of that of the steam cylinder. The capacity of the feed or hot- 
water pump should be the 230th or 240th, at least, of that of the 
steam cylinder. 

HIGH-PRESSURE EXPANSIVE ENGINES. 

Let the following dimensions be given for an engine analogous 
to that which we have just described : — 

Diameter of the cylinder, = -275 m. 

Stroke of the piston, = -680 m. 

Area of the piston, = -0594 square m. 

Number of double strokes per minute, = - 40 

Let us suppose, in the first place, that when the steam reaches 
the cylinder, its pressure is equal to 5 atmospheres, and that it is 
cut off during three- fourths of the stroke ; that is to say, that the 
cylinder only receives the steam during the first quarter of the 
stroke. 

This pressure of 5 atmospheres is equal to 5 x T033 = 5 - 165 
kilog. per square centimetre. Consequently, the total pressure 
exerted upon the surface of the piston is — 

5-165 x 594 sq. cent. — 3068 kilog. 

And as with this pressure the piston passes through a space 
equal to one-fourth of its stroke, or 

•680 -T- 4 = -170 m., 
it is capable, theoretically speaking, of transmitting an amount of 
force expressed by 

3068 x -17 = 521-56 kilogrammetres. 

Next, dividing the length, -51 m., or the remaining three-fourths 
of the stroke, into an even number of equal parts — as four, for 
example — each of these parts will be equal to 

51 

— = -1275 m. 
4 

Now we know that, according to Mariotte's law, the successive 
volumes of a given quantity of any gas are in the inverse ratio of 
their tension or pressure, provided the gas is in the same condition 
throughout. This principle may be regarded as quite true in steam- 
engines, because the expansion is never carried very far, ami as the 
steam passes through the cylinder with great rapidity, and is con- 
tinually being renewed, after a certain time and when the cylinder 
has become warm, its temperature is very little below that of the 
steam itself, and the latter sutlers bo appreciable change in passing 
through it. rutting P for the pressure, 3068 kilog., as found for 
the first quarter of the stroke, we may state the relations of the 
volumes and pressures in the following manner; that is, at the 

points, 1,2,3,4,5, «'f the stroke, or for the suooessive Bpaoea, 

•170 m., "J95 in., -125 in., -5525 in., -680 m. 



150 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



The corresponding pressures will be — ■ 

p -170Q -no p - noo -no 

3068 A:, -2975 ' -425 ' -5525 ' -680 ' 
or finally, 

3068 k, 1764 k, 1227 k, 944 k, 767 k. 

Next, according to Simpson's method, we have 

The sum of the extreme pressures = 3068 + 767 = 3835 

Twice the pressures at the odd intervals, = 2X 1227 = 2454 

Four times the pressures of the even intervals =4 (1764 -f- 944) = 10S32 

Total, 17121 

Taking the third of this quantity, and multiplying it by •1275, 

we shall have the work given out during the cut-off. Thus — 

17121 x -1275 

j = 727-64 k. m. 

Adding to this 521-56 k. m., the work given out before the cut- 



off, we shall have the total of the work given out by the steam 
during the entire stroke of the piston — 
= 1249-2 k. m. 

Deducting now from this the effect of the atmospheric pressure, 
which resists the motion of the piston throughout the stroke, and 
which is equal to 

1-033 k. x 594 sq. c. x -68 ni. = 417-25 k. m., 
there remains for the effective force of the piston — 

1249-2 — 417-25 = 832 k. m., 
nearly, for each stroke ; and as the piston gives 40 double or 80 
single strokes per minute, the effective force per minute becomes 
832 x 80 = 56560 k. m. ; that is, 56560 kilogrammes, raised one 
metre high. 

The effective power of this, as well as of most other expansive 
steam-engines, will be obtained in a much more simple and less 
tedious manner, by taking advantage of the following table : — 



TABLE OF THE FORCE, IX KILOGRAMMETRES, GIYEX OUT TVITH VARIOUS DEGREES OF EXPANSION BY A CUBIC 

METRE OF STEAM AT VARIOUS PRESSURES. 









Force , 


riven out, corresponding with the pressure of 






Volume 
















when 
expanded. 


l 


1J 


2 


2J 


3 


4 


5 


6 




atmosph. 


atmosph. 


atmosph. 


atmosph. 


atmosph. 


atmosph. 


atmosph. 


atmosph. 


cubic metres. 


k. m. 


k. m. 


k. m. 


k. m. 


k. m. 


k; m. 


k. m. 


k. m. 


1-00 


10333 


15500 


20666 


25833 


31000 


41333 


51666 


62000 


1-25 


12639 


18958 


25278 


31597 


37917 


50556 


63195 


75834 


1-50 


14523 


21784 


29046 


36257 


43568 


58092 


72615 


87138 


1-75 


16116 


24174 


32232 


40290 


48348 


64464 


80580 


86696 


2-00 


17496 


26244 


34992 


43740 


52488 


69984 


87480 


104976 


2-25 


18713 


28069 


37426 


46782 


56139 


74852 


93565 


112278 


2-50 


19802 


29703 


39604 


49505 


59406 


79208 


99010 


118812 


2-75 


20787 


31180 


41574 


51967 


62361 


83148 


103935 


124722 


3-00 


21686 


32529 


43372 


54215 


65058 


86744 


108430 


130116 


3-25 


22513 


33769 


45026 


56282 


67539' 


90052 


112565 


135078 


3-50 


23279 


34918 


46558 


58197 


69837 


93116 


116395 


139674 


3-75 


23992 


35988 


47984 


59980 


71976 


95968 


119960 


143952 


4-00 


24658 


36987 


49316 


61645 


73974 


98632 


123290 


147948 


425 


25285 


37927 


50570 


63212 


75855 


101140 


126425 


151710 


4-50 


25875 


38812 


51750 


64687 


77625 


103500 


129375 


155250 


4-75 


26434 


39651 


52868 


66085 


79302 


105736 


132170 


158604 


5-00 


26964 


40446 


53928 


67410 


80892 


107856 


134820 


161784 


5-25 


27467 


41200 


54934 


68667 


82401 


109868 


137335 


164802 


5-50 


27949 


41923 


55898 


69872 


83847 


111796 


139745 


167694 


5-75 


28408 


42612 


56816 


71020 


85224 


113632 


142040 


170448 


6-00 


28848 


43272 


57696 


72120 


86544 


115392 


144240 


173088 


625 


29270 


43905 


58540 


73175 


87810 


1T7080 


146350 


175620 


6-50 


29675 


44512 


59350 


74187 


89025 


118700 


148375 


178050 


675 


30065 


45097 


60130 


75162 


90195 


120260 


150325 


180390 


7-00 


30441 


45661 


60882 


76102 


91323 


121764 


152205 


182646 


7-25 


30804 


46206 


61608 


77010 


92412 


123216 


154020 


183224 


7-50 


31154 


46731 


62308 


77885 


93462 


124616 


155770 


186924 


7"75 


31494 


47239 


62986 


78732 


94479 


125972 


157465 


188958 


8-00 


31820 


47730 


63640 


79550 


95460 


127280 


159100 


190920 


825 


32139 


48208 


64278 


80347 


96417 


128556 


160695 


192835 


8-50 


32447 


48670 


64894 


81117 


97341 


129788 


162235 


194682 


8-75 


32747 


49120 


65494 


81867 


98241 


130988 


163735 


196482 


9-00 


33038 


49557 


66076 


82595 


99114 


132152 


165190 


198228 


9-25 


33321 


49981 


66642 


83302 


99963 


133284 


166605 


199926 


9-50 


33597 


50395 


67194 


83992 


100791 


134388 


167985 


201582 


9-75 


33865 


50797 


67730 


84662 


101595 


135460 


169325 


203190 


10-00 


34127 


51190 


68254 


85317 


102381 


136508 


170635 


204762 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



151 



According to this table, if we have to calculate the force acting 
upon the piston in this engine, in the same circumstances, we must, 
in the first place, ascertain the original volume of the steam intro- 
duced into the cylinder during the first quarter of the stroke of the 
piston. This volume is equal to 

•0594 x -17 = -010098 cubic metres. 
Now it will be seen from the table, that the force given out when 
a cubic metre of steam, of a pressure of 5 atmospheres, expands to 
four times its original volume, is equal to 
123290 k. m. 
Consequently, that corresponding to a volume of -010098 cubic 
metres will be — 

123290 x -010098 = 1245 k. m., 
And deducting from this the atmospheric pressure, which resists 
the motion of the piston, we have 

1245 — 417 = 828 k. m., 
a quantity which differs very little from that obtained by the more 
tedious calculation. Thus, the calculation for determining the 
effective power of a steam-engine, of which we know the diameter 
and stroke of the piston, the pressure of the steam, and the amount 
of cut-off, reduces itself to the following rule : — 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the piston by the portion of the length 
of the stroke, during which the steam ads with full pressure, and you 
will determine the volume of steam expended. Multiply this volume 
by the amount of kilogrammelres in the table, corresponding to the 
pressure of the steam and to the final volume, and then deduct from 
the product the amount, in kilogrammelres, of the atmospheric pressure 
opposed to the piston during the entire stroke, and the result will be 
the theoretic amount of force, in kilogrammetres, given out by the 
steam during a single stroke of the piston. 

A MEDIUM-PKESSURE CONDENSING AND EXPANSIVE STEAM- 
ENGINE. 

Let the following data be assumed : — 

The diameter of the steam-cylinder = -330 m. 

The stroke of the piston = -650 m. 

The diameter of the air-pump = -180 m. 

The stroke of its piston = -325 m. 

The diameter of the feed-pump . . . . = -035 in. 
The stroke of its plunger = -235 m. 

It follows, from these dimensions, that we shall have— 

The area of the steam-piston = 855-30 sq. cent. 

The area of the air-pump piston ... — 254-47 " 
The area of the feed-pump = 9.62 " 

And for the displacement, or volumes of the cylinders generated 
by the pistons — 

That of the steam cylinder . . . . = 55-594 cubic decim. 

That of the air-pump — 8-270 " 

That of the feed-pump = -226 " 

Wo shall suppose that, when the engine is in regular working 
condition, the pressure of the steam is 3J atmospheres; and wo 
must ascertain what is the actual forco given out, supposing the 
steam to be cut off during three-fourths of the stroke of the piston. 



That is to say, that the steam is admitted into the cylinder only 
during a quarter of the stroke, which corresponds to -1625 m. 

Since the sectional area of the cylinder is -0885 m., the volume 
of steam expended during a fourth of the stroke will be equal to 
•0885 x -1625 = -0139 cubic metres; or, 
13-9 cubic decimetres. 

Now, according to the table of the amounts of force given out by 
the steam at various pressures, it will be found that the force due 
to a cubic metre of steam, of an initial pressure of Z\ atmospheres, 
when allowed to expand to four times its volume, is equal to 86303 
kilogrammetres. As the table does not give the actual amount for 
31 atmospheres, it may be taken by adding together that for 2-J 
and 1 atmospheres. Thus — 

61645 + 24658 = 86303 k. m. 

We have, therefore, in the present case — 

•0139 x 86303 = 1199-6 k. m., 
as the force due to a single stroke of the piston. 

From this quantity, however, we must deduct the back pressure 
due to the imperfect vacuum in the condenser. This back pressure 
is, in the generality of cases, equal to about -27 kilog. per square 
centimetre, when the temperature of the water of condensation is 
about 65° cent. 

Allowing this to be the case in the present example, we shall 
have to deduct from the preceding result the action of this back 
pressure upon the whole surface of the piston, and during the entire 
stroke. This is 

•27 x -0885 x -65 x 150-1 k. m., 

We have, consequently, 

1199-6 — 150-1 = 1049-5 k. m., 
for the actual force given out by the piston during a single stroke ; 
and if this engine works at the rate of 42 revolutions per minute, 
which supposes the velocity of the piston to be - 9 m. per second, 
we shall find that the mechanical effect per minute will be equal to 
1049-5 X 84 = 981588 k. m ; or, 
881598 -^ 4500 — 19-59 horses power. 

It is well known, however, that this amount is far from being all 
transmitted by the first-motion shaft, for a portion is absorbed in 
overcoming the friction of the various moving parts of the engine, 
and there are also other causes of loss. 

If we reckon that the force which is really utilised is not more 
than four-tenths of that theoretically due to the steam, in which 
case we must suppose that six-tenths are completely lost, we shall 
have for the effective force transmitted to the first-motion shaftr— 

19-59 x *4 = 7-84 horses power; 
or almost 8 horses power, of 75 kilogrammetres each. 

If it is desired to know the quantity of fuel consumed per hour 
in producing this mechanical effoct, wo may remark, that B cubic 
metre of steam, at a pressuro equal to 3" atmospheres, weighs TS518 
kilog. ; and at a pressure of 4 atmospheres, it weighs 2-0291 kilog. 

Now, although we have supposed tho pressure in the cylinder to 
be 3}j atmospheres, we, nevertheless, allow that it will be conside- 
rably more in the boiler, to compensate for the leakage in the valve- 
casing] passages, and valves. 

Taking 4 atmospheres as tho pressure in tho boiler, it will be 
found that tho weight of steam expended for each single stroke of 
tho piston is — 



152 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



■0139 X 2-091 = -0291 kilog.; 


And since the power obtained is 7-84 horses power — 


and per hour — 


We have 


•0291 x 84 x 60 = 146204 kilog. 


24-44 -f- 7-84 = 3-1 kilog. 


From which it follows, upon the hypothesis that one kilog. of 


for the quantity of coal consumed, per horse power, per hour. 


coal generates 6 kilog. of steam, that the quantity of fuel consum- 


To complete the rules here given, we add the two following 


ed will be 


tables, relating to the principal dimensions given to steam-engines 


146-64 -f- 6 = 24-44 kilog. per hour. 


of different kinds : — 



TABLE OF PROPORTIONS OF DOUBLE-ACTING STEAM-ENGINES, COXDEXSIXG AND NONCONDENSING, AND WITH OR 
WITHOUT CUT OFF, THE STEAM BEING TAKEN AT A PRESSURE OF 4 ATMOSPHERES IX THE CONDENSING, AND AT 
5 ATMOSPHERES IN THE OTHER ENGINES. 











Condensing engines, 


Noncondensing expansive en- 


Noncondensins 1 




Stroke 
of 


Velocity 
of piston 


Number of 
revolutions 


cutting off 


it one-fourth of the stroke. 


gines, cutting off at one-fourth. 


noneipansive engines. 


Horses 












power. 


piston. 


per second. 


per minute. 


Diameter 


Area of piston Weight of 


Diameter 


Area of piston 


Diameter Weisrht of 










of the 


per steam per horse 


of the 


per 


of steam per horse 










piston. 


horse power, power per hour. 


piston. 


horse power. 


piston. 


powerperhour. 




cent. 


cent. 




cent. 


sq. cent. 


kil-g. 


cent. 


sq. cent 


cent. • 


kilog. 


i 


40 


70 


52-5 


16 


189 


24-90 


14 


148 


10 


50-76 


2 


50 


75 


45-0 


20 


160 


22-62 


19 


135 


14 


49-56 


4 


60 


80 


40-0 


27 


148 


22-38 


25 


124 


18 


46-98 


6 


70 


85 


36-4 


32 


138 


22-08 


31 


123 


21 


45-30 


8 


80 


90 


337 


36 


127 


21-54 


33 


106 


23 


42-00 


10 


90 


95 


31-7 


39 


119 


21-36 


36 


100 


25 


41-34 


12 


100 


100 


300 


42 


112 


21-18 


38 


92 


26 


40-86 


16 


110 


105 


28-6 


46 


104 


20-58 


42 


87 


29 


39-96 


20 


120 


110 


27-5 


49. 


94 


20-28 


45 


81 


31 


38-82 


25 


130 


115 


26-5 


• 54 


92 


19-80 


49 


76 


34 


38-52 


30 


140 


120 


25-7 


57 


86 


19-32 


52 


72 


36 


37-56 


35 


150 


125 


250 


59 


77 


18-54 


55 


68 


38 


37-38 


40 


160 


130 


24-3 


62 


75 


18-06 


57 


64 


39 


36-60 


50 


170 


135 


23-8 


67 


70 


17-28 


62 


60 


43 


36-18 


60 


180 


140 


23-3 


72 


68 


17-22 


66 


58 


I 46 


35-76 


75 


190 


145 


229 


78 


67 


1716 


72 


54 


50 


3504 


100 


200 


150 


225 


85 


57 


1662 


84 


56 


56 


34-08 



TABLE OF PROPORTIONS OF MEDIUM PRESSURE CONDENSING AND EXPANSIVE STEAM-EXGTXES, WITH TWO 
CYLINDERS ON WOOLF'S SYSTEM; PRESSURE 4 ATMOSPHERES. 





Diameter of cylinders in 
centimetres. 


Area of pistons in Bquare centimetres. 


Stroke of pistons in metres. 




Horte* 


















power. 


d. 


D 


Total. 


Per horse power. 


s. 


S. 


per minute. 




















a. 


A. 


a. 


A. 








4 


16 


27 


201 


572 


50 


143 


■67 


•90 


300 


6 


19 


35 


283 


962 


47 


160 


•67 


■90 


30-0 


8 


21 


38 


346 


1134 


43 


141 


•75 


1-00 


30-0 


10 


23 


42 


415 


1385 


41 


138 


•75 


1-00 


30-0 


12 


25 


46 


491 


1662 


40 


138 


•82 


110 


27-3 


16 


28 


52 


616 


2124 


38 


133 


•90 


1-20 


27-5 


20 


30 


54 


707 


2290 


35 


114 


•97 


1-30 


25-4 


24 


32 


59 


804 


2734 


33 


113 


•97 


1-30 


25-4 


30 


34 


63 


908 


3117 


30 


103 


1-20 


1-60 


21-6 


36 


37 


67 


1075 


3526 


29 


98 


1-20 


1-60 


216 


40 


37 


67 


1075 


3526 


26 


88 


1-27 


1-70 


22-1 


45 


39 


71 


1194 


3959 


26 


87 


1-27 


1-70 


22-1 


50 


41 


75 


1320 


4418 


26 


88 


1-35 


1-80 


20-8 


60 


45 


82 


1590 


5281 


26 


88 


1-35 


1-80 


20-8 


70 


48 


87 


1809 


5945 


25 


84 


1-50 


2-00 


19-5 


80 


51 


93 


2043 


6793 


25 


84 


1-50 


2-00 


19-5 


90 


54 


99 


2290 


7698 


25 


85 


1-57 


2-10 


186 


100 


57 


104 


2552 


8495 


25 


85 


1-57 


2-10 


186 


110 


60 


109 


2827 


9331 


25 


84 


1-57 


2-10 


186 


120 


62 


114 


3019 


10207 


25 


85 


1-57 


2-10 


18-6 


130 


65 


118 


3318 


10936 


25 


84 


1-57 


2-10 


18-6 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



163 



CONICAL PENDULUM, OR CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR. 

The centrifugal ball-governor is compared, in physics, to a 
simple pendulum, the length of which is equal to the distance of 
the point of suspension from the horizontal plane passing through 
the centres of the balls; and the duration of an entire revolution of 
the ball-governor is equal to that of a complete oscillation of the 
pendulum. 

The formula for determining the vertical height or the distance 
of the point of suspension above the plane of the balls is, conse- 
quently, the same as that employed to find the width of a pendu- 
lum, of which we know the number of oscillations. It may be 
reduced to the following rule : — 

Rule. — Divide the constant number, 89,478, by the square of the 
number of revolutions per minute. The quotient will give the height 
in centimetres. 

Example. — What is the vertical height or distance of the point 
of attachment, from the horizontal plane passing through the 
centres of the balls of a governor, revolving at the rate of 40 turns 
per minute 1 

We have 40 2 = 1600, 

and 89478 -f- 1600 = 56 centimetres, 

for the height sought. 

With this rule, it will be easy for us to calculate the heights of 
conical pendulums, from the velocity of 25 revolutions per minute, 
to that of 67 ; and within these will be found the rates of combi- 
nations more generally met with in practice. We have given 
them in the following table, adding a column, which gives the 
difference in height for each revolution. And as the angle which 
the arms of the governor make with the spindle is generally one 
of 30°, when the balls are in a state of repose, or are going at 
their minimum velocity, we have given, in the fifth column of the 
table, the lengths of these arms, from their point of suspension to 
the centres of the balls, assuming the angle of 30°, and malting 
them to correspond with the number of revolutions given in the 
first column. 

In calculating the lengths of the arms, we have employed the 
following practical rule : — 

Rule. — Divide the constant number, 103,320, by the square of the 
number of revolutions per minute, and the quotient ioM be the length 
in centimetres. 

Example. — Assuming the angle to be 30°, what should be the 
length of tho arras of a conical pendulum, making 37 revolutions 
per minute? 

We have 37 2 = 1369. 

10-3320 



Then— 



1369 



= 75-16 centimetres, 



for the length of the arms of tho pendulum, or tho diameter of the 
circle described by the balls. 

It is evident, that if, on the other hand, the length of the arms, 
with this angle of 30°, is known, the number of revolutions which 
the balls make in a minute, will be found by dividing the number, 
103,320, by the length of the arms expressed in centimetres, and then 
extracting the square root of tlie quotient. 

Tho weight of tho balls, according to the resistance they have 
to encounter, is as important to determine as the length of tho 



suspending-arms, in order that the governing action of the pendu- 
lum may be sufficiently powerful and quick. It often happens, in 
badly designed engines, that the governor produces no effect, be- 
cause the length of the suspending-arms is not proportionate to 
the velocity, or because the weight of the balls is not proportionate 
to the resistance to be overcome. 

We have considered that it would be a great convenience to 
engineers and artisans to possess a table, showing at sight the ve- 
locities and corresponding lengths, for the conical pendulums, or 
ball-governors, generally employed in steam-engines, so as to 
enable them to determine with certainty the exact proportions to 
be given them, in relation to their spindles and driving-gear. 
When these points are determined, the weights of the balls may be 
easily adjusted. 

TABLE RELATIVE TO THE DIMENSIONS OF THE ARMS AND TO THE 
VELOCITIES OF THE BALLS OF THE CONICAL PENDULUM OR 
CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR. 



Number of 


Square of the 
Velocities. 


Length of 


Difference of 


Length of Arms 


Revolutions 


Pendulum in 


Length for one 


with an Angle 


per Minute. 


Centimetres. 


Revolution. 


of 30°. 






Cent. 


Mill. 


Cent. 


25 


625 


143-1 


108 


16 


26 


676 


132-4 


96 


153 


27 


729 


122-7 


86 


142 


28 


784 


114-1 


77 


132 


29 


841 


106-4 


70 


123 


80 


900 


99-4 


63 


115 


31 


961 


93-1 


57 


107 


32 


1024 


87-3 


52 


101 


33 


1089 


82-1 


48 


95 


34 


1156 


77-4 


44 


89 


35 


1225 


73-0 


40 


84 


36 


1296 


69-0 


37 


80 


37 


1369 


65-3 


34 


75 


38 


1444 


61-9 


31 


71 


39 


1521 


58-8 


29 


68 


40 


1600 


55-9 


27 


64 


41 


1681 


53-2 


25 


61 


42 


1764 


50-7 


23 


58 


43 


1849 


48-4 


22 


56 


44 


1936 


46-2 


20 


53 


45 


2025 


44-2 


19 


51 


46 


2116 


42-3 


18 


49 


47 


2209 


40-5 


17 


47 


48 


2304 


38-8 


16 


45 


49 


2401 


37-3 


15 


43 


50 


2500 


35-8 


14 


41 


51 


2601 


34-4 


13 


40 


52 


2704 


33-1 


12 


88 


53 


28(19 


31-8 


12 


87 


54 


2916 


30-7 


11 


83 


65 


3025 


29-6 


10 


84 


56 


3136 


28-5 


10 


86 


57 


3249 


27'5 


9 


32 


58 


8364 


26-6 


9 


81 


59 


3481 


25-7 


8 


80 


60 


8600 


24-8 


8 


29 


61 


8721 


24-8 


8 


28 


62 


8844 


23-3 


7 


27 


63 


3969 


■ 22-5 


7 


26 


64 


4096 


21-9 


7 


25 


65 


4225 


21-2 


6 


24 


66 


4866 


20-5 


C 


21 


67 


• I 189 


19-9 


6 


2;; 


68 


4624 


19-;: 




2;; 



Note. — With an imtrleof 30°, the centrifugal foroe is tho same for 
all lengths of pendulum. 

This tahlo may also ho consulted in the 08,86 of siiu;le-«niiod pendu- 
lums, which are occasionally employed, instead of centrifugal govei> 

HOIS. 

V 



154 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



CHAPTER XL 
OBLIQUE PROJECTIONS. 

APPLICATION OF RULES TO THE DELINEATION OF AN OSCILLATING STEAM CYLINDER. 

PLATE XLI. 



419. In geometrical drawing, the planes of projection on which 
the objects are represented, are chosen, when possible, so as to be 
parallel to the faces of such objects ; from which it follows, that 
these are expressed in their exact shapes and dimensions. It is 
often, however, that the position of certain parts of the machine or 
apparatus to be drawn, are inclined in regard to the other parts, so 
that all the surfaces cannot be parallel to the geometrical planes. 
The projections of the inclined parts are oblique, and, consequently, 
are seen as foreshortened. 

The general method employed in projections is evidently appli- 
cable to the delineation of oblique projections. It is, however, 
necessary first to represent the objects as if parallel to the plane 
of the drawing, so as to obtain the exact proportions and dimen- 
sions, such views being auxiliary to the production of the oblique 
representations. 

420. Thus it is proposed to represent a hexagonally-based prism 
or a six-sided nut, the edges of which are inclined to both the hori- 
zontal and vertical plane. 

We first of all represent this nut, in fig. 1, as placed with its base 
parallel to an auxiliary horizontal plane, represented by the line, 
l t, fig. 3. This gives the regular hexagon, abed ef. 

If we were to make the vertical projection of this prism on a 
vertical plane, parallel to one of the faces, or to a d, we should, in 
this second auxiliary plane, have the projection of the edges, 
abed. 

The straight line, l' t', fig. 3, indicates the hue of intersection 
of these two auxiliary planes, when placed in their actual position 
with regard to the nut ; and it is, therefore, the base line of the two 
projections. This line forms, we shall suppose, the angle, l o if, 
with the base line of the actual drawing in hand, which angle, 
likewise, expresses the amount of inclination of the top and bottom 
of the prism, with the actual horizontal plane; whilst the angle, 
o' o (?, formed by the perpendiculars, drawn to each of the lines 
through the point, o, expresses the amount of inclination of the 
edges and axis of the prism with regard to the vertical plane. After 
this, it is merely necessary, in order to obtain the points, a', b', c', d', 
to set off to the right and left of the point, o, on the line, l' t', the 
distances, a o or d o, and b g or c g, derived from fig. 1. Drawing 
perpendiculars to the line, l' t', through each of the points, a\ b\ c 1 , d\ 
and limiting them by the lines, a 5 d* and a* cP, fig. 2, parallel to the 
former, we obtain the entire vertical projection of the prism, as 
upon the auxiliary plane, parallel to one of the faces, as c b. When 
one of the bases of the nut is rounded, or terminated by a spherical 
portion, which is generally the case, as already seen (186), its con- 
tour is limited by circular arcs, expressing the intersection of each 
face with the sphere. 

We can then, by means of the two projections, figs. 1 and 2, 
obtain the oblique projection, fig. 4, upon the vertical plane, l t ; 
fig. 1 giving the widths, the distances of each of the points from 



the axial line, a d, which passes through the centre, o, and fig. 2, 
defining the vertical heights or distances of the various pointa 
above the horizontal plane. 

To this end, through any of the points, as c, for example, ex- 
pressing the horizontal projection of the edge, c a c 1 , erect a vertical 
line, and through the corresponding points, c 2 c*, fig. 2, draw a 
couple of horizontal lines, cutting the vertical in c" and d". The 
same operation is performed with regard to the points, 6, a, J, &c., 
which are projected in V", a'", d", d'", fig. 4. The whole matter 
consists, therefore, in drawing vertical lines through each of the 
points in fig. 1, and horizontal lines through the corresponding 
points in fig. 2. The intersections of these lines give the projec- 
tions of the extremities of each of the edges in the oblique view, 
fig. 4. 

If it is wished to obtain the projections of the circular outlines 
with minute exactness, it will be necessary to determine, at least, 
three points in each arc ; and as we have the extremities already, 
we only require now to find the middle of each. It is the same for 
the circle representing the central opening of the nut. Its oblique 
projection is necessarily an ellipse, the proportions of which are 
obtained by the projection of the two diameters perpendicular to 
one another, one of winch, m n, is parallel to the vertical plane, and 
does not alter in magnitude ; consequently, giving the transverse 
a^is of the ellipse, whilst the other is inclined and foreshortened, 
and gives the conjugate axis. 

421. In general, the oblique projection of any circle is always an 
ellipse, the transverse axis of which is equal to the actual diameter 
of the circle, whilst the conjugate axis is variable, according to the 
inclination or angle which the plane of the circle makes with one 
of the planes of projection. The application of this principle will 
be seen in figs. 5, 6, and 7. The two first of these figures repre- 
sent the horizontal and vertical projections made upon the auxiliary 
planes of a portion of the cylindrical rod, a, of the piston, b, work- 
ing in the oscillating steam-cylinder, c; and the last, fig. 7, is the 
oblique projection of this part of the piston-rod upon the vertical 
plane, corresponding to that of the drawing. 

It will be remarked, that the upper part of the fragment of the 
rod being limited by a plane, k I, perpendicular to its axis, is pro- 
jected as an ellipse, the transverse axis, p q, of which is equal to 
k I, whilst its conjugate axis. Y k\ is equal to the projection of this 
line, k I, on fig. 7. The cylindrical fillets, r s,t u, &c, of this rod, 
are projected obliquely, as similar ellipses, of which portions only 
are apparent. For the torus, or ring, which is comprised between 
these two fillets, the oblique projection is a curve, which results 
from the intersection of an elliptical cylinder, the generatrices of 
which are horizontal, and tangent to the external surface of the 
torus. If, therefore, we wish to determine this curve with great 
precision, we must use the very same method adopted in determining 
the shadow proper of the external surface of the torus (323). In 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



155 



practice, however, when the drawing is on but a small scale, we 
may content ourselves with determining the principal points in the 
curve, by projecting first the point, v, situated upon the middle of 
the diameter, y y', of the torus, and drawing through it the line, 
v 1 v 2 , equal to the diameter ; and, secondly, drawing the horizontal 
lines touching the external contour of the torus in the points, z, z', 
fig. 6, over to z 2 , z s , upon the axial line, I' o', fig. 7 ; then draw an 
ellipse with these two lines, v 1 v 1 and z 2 z 3 , for the transverse and 
conjugate axes respectively. The key, d, which passes through 
the rod, a, being rectangular in section, is projected in fig. 7, by 
a couple of rectangles, as indicated by the dotted projection lines. ' 

422. Proceeding upon these principles, we can make oblique 
projections, in a very simple manner, of various objects, more or 
less complicated in form, when we have already the projections of 
these objects upon auxiliary planes, making any known angle with 
the actual plane of the drawing. Thus, figs. 10 and 13 are the 
oblique projections of an oscillating steam-cylinder, the first repre- 
senting the cylinder in external elevation, whilst the second is a 
section made through the axis of the cylinder. 

It is easy to see that these projections have been obtained in the 
same manner as those already given in figs. 4 and 7 ; that is to say, 
the external projection, fig. 10, is derived from the two right pro- 
jections, figs. 8 and 9 — one made upon an auxiliary vertical plane, 
parallel to the axis of the piston-rod, and perpendicular to the axial 
lines of the trunnions, and the other upon a horizontal plane, 
parallel to the cylinder ends, and, consequently, perpendicular to its 
axis. All the different parts of this cylinder are, in fig. 10, project- 
ed by straight lines and ellipses, accordingly as they are rectilinear 
f r circular in contour. It is the same with the section, fig. 13, 
md the horizontal projection, fig. 14, which are derived from the 
two right projections, figs. 11 and 12, made upon auxiliary planes; 
one vertical, and passing through the axis of the cylinder, and 
through the valve-casing, whilst the other is perpendicular to this 
axis, and passes through the line, 1 — 2, fig. 11. The dotted work- 
ing lines, indicated upon the various figures, show sufficiently 
clearly the various constructions necessary to obtain these oblique 
projections. We have, moreover, applied numbers to the different 
parts projected, and more particularly to the axes or centre lines, 
which show at sight what parts correspond with each other upon 
the different projections. 

423. These drawings represent the cylinder of a steam-engine, 



different from that which we have already described. The pre- 
sent one is called an oscillating steam-engine, because, instead of 
the cylinder being vertical and immovable, it oscillates during the 
motion of its piston, b, upon the two trunnions, E, carried in suita- 
ble bearings in the engine-framing. This arrangement of oscillat- 
ing cylinder has the advantage of dispensing with the parallel 
motion, and of attaching the rod, a, of the piston, directly to 
the crank-pin, to which its motion is transmitted, without the 
intervention of any connecting-rod. In the head, h, of the rod, 
there is, consequently, formed a bearing, which embraces the 
crank-pin. 

The bottom of the cylinder is cast in the same piece with it, but 
it has a small central opening, for the passage of the spindle of the 
boring tool, by means of which the interior of the cylinder is turned 
smooth and true. This opening is closed by a cast-iron cap, f, 
bolted to the bottom of the cylinder. Against a planed face, upon 
one side of the cylinder, is fitted the valve-casing, g, which receives 
the steam direct from the boiler, and has within it the valve, h, 
which has an alternate rectilinear movement, at the same time 
oscillating along with the cylinder. During this movement, the 
valve alternately uncovers the ports, a, Z>, fig. 11, which conduct 
the steam to the top and bottom of the cylinder. A blade 
spring, i, attached to the inside of the valve-casing, at the back of 
the valve, constantly keeps the latter well up against the planed 
valve face. 

The steam cfming from the boiler introduces itself into the cas- 
ing through the passage, c, fig. 12, which communicates with one 
of the trunnions, e, and the escape of the steam, when it has acted 
upon the piston, is effected through the exit channel, <7, which com- 
municates with the other trunnion. 

The piston, b, is composed of a cast-iron body, on the outer sur- 
face of which is cut out a groove, to receive the hempen packing, 
i, partly covered by an elastic metal ring, h, coinciding exactly with 
the inside of the cylinder. 

Oscillating cylinder-engines have always been admired for their 
simplicity and beautiful action; but it is only of late years, and 
now that such superior workmanship is attainable, that such en- 
gines have been constructed of considerable size. The aptness of 
this arrangement for engines of the largest size has lately been 
demonstrated by Penn, in the case of the Great Britain, and other 
large vessels. 



CHAPTER XII. 
PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE. 

PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS. 



PLATE XLII. 



421. Wo give the name of parallel perspective to (ho represen- 
tation of objects by oblique projections, which differ from the 
preceding, in so far that the visual rays, which we have hitherto 
■upposed to be always perpendicular to the geometrical planes, 
form, on the contrary, a certain angle with these planes, remain- 



ing, however, constantly parallel to each other; from which it 
follows, that all the straight lines, which are parallel in the object, 
maintain their parallelism in (he picture, according to this system 
of perspective. Although, in general, it is immaterial what the 
angle of inclination is, it is nevertheless preferable, in regulai 



156 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



drawing 1 , to adopt some particular angle as a matter of convention, 
which will have the advantage of giving the entire dimensions of 
the object in a single projection or view. 

]^et a b and a' b', figs. 1 and 2, be the two projections of a 
straight line, to which we wish to make the visual rays all parallel ; 
the vertical projection, a b, of this straight line, forms an angle, 
cat, with the ground line, l t, which angle is, we shall suppose, 
equal to 30°, and its horizontal projection, a' b', is such, that the 
distance of the point, a', from the*point. a, where it touches the 
horizontal plane, is equal to twice the length, a b, of its vertical 
projection, the point, b, being that at which it touches the vertical 
plane. 

We shall proceed to show, by means of the various figures in 
Plate XLIL, that, in taking the above straight lines as directrices 
for the visual rays, a single projection will be quite sufficient to 
express all the dimensions of any object. Instead of making the 
directrices of the different objects, represented in this plate, to coin- 
cide with the actual projection of the straight lines which we have 
just indicated, we have, by preference, chosen the mere setting of 
these same lines round at an angle of 30°. Thus, the lines, 
e d", k' i", fig. 3, are the straight lines perpendicular to the planes 
of projection, set round to the angle in question ; whilst, on the 
contrary, the straight line, y z, represents the projection of these 
lines properly parallel to the horizontal projection, a' b', in fig. 2. 

425. The finished view, fig. A, is the representation in parallel, 
or, as it is sometimes called, false perspective, of a^prism, e, with a 
square base, resting upon a plinth, f, also prism-shaped and square. 
In the first place, we suppose this prism to be represented in the 
horizontal projection, fig. 3, by two concentric squares, a' d' ef and 
h' i k I; and in the vertical projection, fig. 4, by the rectangles, 
abed and g h ij. These projections are made upon the suppo- 
sition, hitherto acted upon, that the visual rays are perpendicular to 
the geometrical planes. 

If now, on the contrary, the visual rays make with the planes of 
projection an angle equal to that of the given straight line, figs. 1 
and 2, each of the faces parallel to the vertical plane continues to 
be parallel to this plane, and is represented by a figure equal to 
itself, whilst all the faces perpendicular to the two planes are in 
projecting rendered oblique, in such a manner, that the lines hori- 
zontally projected become parallel to a' b', fig. 2 ; and those verti- 
cally projected, to a b, fig. 1. Consequently, if through the 
points of the projecting angles, a, h, i,j, fig. 4, are drawn straight 
lines, parallel to a b, they will express the directions of all the 
edges perpendicular to the vertical plane. Since then, as we 
have already stated, the length of the projection, a b, fio. l, is. 
equal to one-half the perpendicular, a a', fig. 2, if from the points, 
a, h, i, j, and on each side of them, we measure off, upon the 
oblique lines just drawn, the distances, a a* and af, h ¥ and h P, 
i ?, and i k"; &-C, respectively equal to half the lengths, a' m and 
ft' n, &c, we shall, in fig. 4, have the perspective representation of 
the various straight lines perpendicular to the vertical plane ; and 
as all the other edges are parallel to this same plane, such lines as 
are actually vertical are represented as vertical, whilst all lines 
parallel to the base line remain horizontal. Thus, the edges, a b, 
ft g, d c, ij, being vertical, are in the parallel perspective repre- 
sented by the verticals, ar b\ lr g*, i* p, d- c a : and likewise the 



edges, a d, b c, h i, &c, which are parallel to both planes of pro- 
jection, are rendered by the straight lines, a 5 d 1 , b* c a , ft" ?, &c, 
parallel to the base line. 

It will be easily seen, that by adopting the angle we have indi- 
cated for the direction of the visual, or more correctly termed, 
representative ray, that the one single view in parallel perspective 
is sufficient to make known all the dimensions of the object ; for, 
on the one hand, we have the exact widths and heights of those 
faces which are parallel to the plane of the projection, as if the 
perspective view did not differ from an ordinary geometrical pro- 
jection, in which the representative rays are supposed to be per- 
pendicular to the plane ; and, on the other hand, the oblique lines 
representing all the edges actually perpendicular to the vertical 
plane, and which are exactly equal to half the actual lengths of 
the latter. 

We may here observe, that the base of the prism being square, 
the sides, k I and i' k, are equal to the sides, ft' i! or I k. Conse- 
quently, in order to construct the perspective or oblique projection, 
fig. 4, the plan, fig. 3, is not needed, since it would have answered 
the purpose equally well to have made the lines, d? e* or i 2 Ar", equal 
to the half of a d or h i. 

426. The shaded view, fig. U, represents a frustum of a regular 
pvramid, g, resting upon an octagonal base, h, the horizontal pro- 
jection of which is indicated in full, sharp lines, in fig. 5, and the 
vertical projection in dotted lines, in fig. 6. 

According to the principle thus laid down, the perspective view 
is obtained, in the first place, by drawing all the lines which are 
perpendicular and parallel to the base line, fig. 5, and passing 
through the opposite angles of each of the octagons, representing 
the upper and lower bases of the pvramidal frustum, and of the 
plinth. Of these lines, all, a' d',f e', ft' i, &c, which are parallel 
to the base line, as well as the sider, p' a", t' u, v' x', which are 
likewise parallel to the former, remain horizontal in the perspective 
view, fi>. 6, whilst, on the other hand, all the straight lines, such as 
p 1 r, t' y', t' z, as well as the sides, a'f, ft' I', V k J , which are per- 
pendicular to the base line, become inclined at an angle of 30° from 
this line, as in fig. 6, or, in other words, parallel to the straight 
line, a B, fig. 1. 

If now, through the points, a, g, p, q, &c., and the points, ft, o, i, 
of the two bases of the pyramidal frustum, we draw parallels to the 
straight line in question, and then mark off from each of those 
points, aud on each side of them, the distances, a a?, g g*,p p\ ft ft', 
&c, respectively, equal to the semi-lengths of the corresponding 
straight lines, mf',g' n, &c., of fig. 5, we shall have the parallel- 
perspective representation of all these lines ; and consequently, by- 
joining the extreme points of each of them, we shall also have all 
the fines representing the contours of the two bases ; and further, 
by joining the angles of these bases, we define the lateral faces, 
and complete the view-, fig. 6. 

427. The parallel-perspective representation of a cylindrical 
object, of which the axis is perpendicular to the vertical plane, as 
in the finished example, fig. ©, may be determined without the 
assistance of the horizontal projection ; that is, when the length of 
the cvlinder is known, as well as that of any other part which may 
be perpendicular to the vertical plane. 

Let a b c d gfe,fig. 7, be the vertical projection of this object, 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



157 



the perspective of its base, abed, will be parallel to a b. The 
circles which have their centres at o, being parallel to the vertical 
plane, are represented in perspective by two circles equal to them- 
selves ; and then- position is obtained by drawing through the 
point, o, the straight line, o 1 o% parallel to a b, fig. 1, and marking 
off a distance, lying equally on both sides of the point, o, equal to 
half the length of the cylinder, measured in the direction of the 
axis, perpendicular to the vertical plane. Then with the points, 
o\ d 1 , as centres, describe the circles with the equal radii, d f and 
d i', straight lines,/ 1 / 2 and i 1 i\ drawn tangential to the circles, 
and parallel to the axis, o 1 o 2 , express in perspective the genera- 
trices of the two cylinders forming the contour of the object. 
The cylindrical pieces which join the cylinder to the base are 
determined in the same manner by means of the line, n ra a , drawn 
through the centre, n, of the circle, d g, parallel to o 1 o", and by 
the distances, n n\ n n\ together equal to half the actual length of 
these cylindrical surfaces. The base is drawn as in the preceding 
example. 

428. The example, fig. E), represents a cone resting upon a 
cylindrical base, both cone and base having the same axis perpen- 
dicular to the horizontal plane. This cone and cylinder are pro- 
jected on the plan, fig. 8, in sharp lines, and in the elevation, fig. 9, 
in dotted lines. 

The circles, fig. 8, representing the bases of the cone and cylin- 
der, are to be divided into a certain number of equal parts ; and 
through the points of division, 1, 2, 3, &c, perpendiculars are drawn 
to the ground line, and are prolonged as far as the horizontal line, 
a' o', which is the vertical projection of the two bases. Through 
the points, a', b', c', o', are drawn straight lines parallel to a b, fig. 
1 ; and on each of these are set off the distauces, a' 2', b' 3', c' 4', 
d 5', &c., respectively equal to half the lengths of the perpendicu- 
lars, 2 a, 3 b, 4 c, 5 o, &c, which operation gives the points, 2', 3', 
4', 5', &c, through which an ellipse must be traced, to represent 
the perspective of the base of the cylinder. In the same manner 
we obtain the points through which passes the ellipse, Representing 
the perspective of the base of the cone. 

The heights of the cone and its base remain precisely what they 
really are, in consequence of their common axis being parallel to 
the vertical plane ; but this is not the case with their bases, which, 
being horizontal, are projected obliquely, in the form of the ellipses 
we have just drawn. The apex of the cone, at the upper extre- 
mity of the vertical axis, does not change, and for the generatrices, 
or sides of the cone, it is simply necessary to draw through the 
apex the straight lines, o 2 m and <? n, tangents to the ellipse repre- 
senting the base of the cone, whilst the generatrices of the cylinder 
are tangents to the two ellipses representing its upper and lower 
bases. 

429. The example, fig. H, is the parallel-perspective representa- 
tion of a metal-sphere or knob, attached to a polygonal base by n 
circular gorge, forming altogether an ornamental head for a Bcrew 
Figs. 10 and 11 are the horizontal and vertical projections of this 
piece. 

We must, in the first place, remark that the sphere, the radius 
of which is o a, may be determined in its perspective representa- 
tion in several ways. First, by imagining the horizontal sections, 
ab,cil,cj\ which give in plan the circles, with the radii, «' d, 



d d, and e' o', and the perspectives of each of these circles may 
be obtained by operations similar to the preceding, which will give 
a series of ellipses, to he circumscribed by another ellipse, tangen- 
tial to them all. Second, by drawing the planes, g h, ij, parallel 
to the vertical plane, and which are projected in perspective as 
circles, with the radii, I" g, i m, the centres being upon the oblique 
line, n n', parallel to the line, a b, fig. 1, and passing through the 
centre, o, of the sphere. The external curve, drawn tangential to 
all these circles, will be elliptical, as in the preceding method, and 
represent the perspective of the sphere. Thirdly, by at first 
drawing through the centre, o, an oblique line, n n' ; then a per- 
pendicular, e e", passing through the same point. Then set out 
from the centre, o, and on each side, the distances, o e, o e", equal 
to the radius, o a, of the sphere, which gives the conjugate axis of 
the ellipse. To obtain the transverse axis, it will be necessary to 
draw tangents to the great circle of the sphere, parallel to the 
oblique ray of projection, a b, fig. 1, as brought into the vertical 
plane. This line is brought into the vertical plane, as at a" b. in 
the following manner : — At the point, a, a perpendicular to a b is 
erected, and the distance, a" a, is made equal to a a', when a" b is 
joined. 

These tangents touch the sphere in the points,/ /', which may 
be obtained directly by drawing through the centre, o, the line,//', 
perpendicular to a" b. These tangerts, further, meet the line, n n 1 , 
in the points, n, n' ; and the distance between these points is, con- 
sequently, the transverse axis of the ellipse, which represents the 
perspective of the sphere, and which may be drawn according to 
any of the known methods. 

This last method is evidently the shortest and simplest of the 
three for obtaining the perspective of the sphere, but it is confined 
in its application ; for any other surface of revolution, as, for exam- 
ple, the gorge, which unites the sphere to the hexagonal base, 
cannot be defined in this way. In cases where the axis of the 
surface of revolution is vertical, as in this example, it will be neces- 
sary to adopt the first general method, which consists in taking 
horizontal sections. When, on the other hand, the axis of the 
surface of revolution is horizontal, we must employ the second 
process, which consists in taking sections parallel to the vertical 
plane, or perpendicular to the axis. The perspective of the thread 
of the screw, of which the sphere is the ornamental head, is de- 
terminable in a manner analogous to that of a circle. It is suffi- 
cient, in fact, first to draw the two geometrical projections, figs. 8 
and 12, of one or two convolutions of the thread, and to find the 
perspectives of the very points which have served for the construc- 
tion of the helices. Thus, for example, we put the circle. / p q, 
fig. 8, into perspective, as at l l i* </*, tig. 13, retaining for this pur- 
pose the same points, /, /), (/, &£., which were employed ill deline- 
ating the screw, tig. 12. Through these points, /\ p*, «/\ &&, draw 

vertical lines; and upon them set oil' the distances, /' /'-', /' I', p l p\ 
&C. Then through the points, /",/", Sic,, draw the curve, which 
will be the perspective of the outer helix of the screw-thread. 
By going through the same operation for the inner circle, r s /, fig. 
10, we shall obtain the similarly perspective outline of the inner 
helix. 
An examination of fig. 13 will further show that the heights on 

the Vertical lines are precisely the Same for belli lu -lices, tor llu \ 



158 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



are taken upon radii common to the two circles, Vp" and rst, con- 
sidered as bases. 

We have deemed it unnecessary to enter further into the deve- 
lopment of this species of perspective, of which we have already 
given a general application in the boring-machine, represented at 
fig. 1, Plate XXXV., an example in which are collected almost all 
the various forms which present themselves for delineation amongst 
mechanical elements and machinery. 

In that example, as well as in the figures in Plate XLII., which 
we have just been studying, we have supposed the representative 
or visual rays to be in all cases parallel to each other, and to be 



inclined at an angle of 30° with the ground line in the vertical pro- 
jection, in such a manner that a single view serves to express all 
that two, or even three, geometrical projections can do, showing 
not only the external contours of the objects, but also whatever 
may be upon their surface. 

It will be easy to comprehend the utility of this system of giv- 
ing, at a single view, a general and precise idea of the actual relievo 
appearance of any object. It is a manner of representation often 
more intelligible to the generality of people than a series of geo- 
metrical projections, and in many cases it will greatly simplify the 
process of sketching buildings or machinery. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



TRUE PERSPECTIVE 



PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS. — ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 



PLATE XLIIL 



430. Perspective, properly so called — but here defined as true or 
exact perspective — differs from parallel or false perspective, in its 
being founded upon the actual manner in which vision takes place ; 
that is, that instead of being parallel to each other, the visual rays 
converge to a point. An object is said to be drawn in perspective 
when, on viewing the drawing from a particular point, it presents 
the same appearance to the organs of vision as the object repre- 
sented itself does when similarly viewed. 

The visual rays, or impressions, travel from the object in 
straight lines, converging to a point at the eye, and forming a cone 
of rays. Let us suppose this cone to be intercepted by a trans- 
parent plane, or diaphragm, of any form — then, noting the points 
where the rays from the various parts of the object pierce this 
diaphragm, let us paint upon it the outline, and complete the 
picture with colours, which to the eye shall have the exact appear- 
ance of those of the object itself, modified, as they may be, by 
distance, position, form, and by their being in the light or shade. 
After doing this, we may remove the object, but the picture upon 
the diaphragm will make the same impression upon the eye that 
the object would itself. It is to the representation of objects in 
this exact and natural manner, that the art of drawing in perspec- 
tive is devoted. 

The fixed point, to which the rays converge, is called the point 
of sight; and in diagrams explanatory of perspective, it is shown, 
together with the conversing rays, as projected into the plane of 
the picture. To determine the perspective delineation of an 
object mathematically, we must have given us the horizontal and 
vertical projections of the object; also those of the point of sight, 
and the position of the plane of the picture; and the general 
problem of perspective then reduces itself to conceiving the visual 
rays as passing from the various points of the object to the point 
of sight, and to find the intersection of these rays with the plane 
of the picture. 



FIRST PROBLEM. 

THE PERSPECTIVE OF A HOLLOW PRISM. 

431. Let a and a', figs. 1 and 2, be the horizontal and vertical 
projections of the prism which we wish to delineate in perspective, 
the point of sight being projected in v and v', and the plane of the 
picture, in t and t', being supposed to be perpendicular to the 
planes of projection, and vertical, as is generally the case. 

Through the point, v, in the horizontal projection, draw visual 
rays from each of the points, a, b, c, d, appertaining to the external 
contour of Jhe prism. The intersection of these points with the 
plane of the picture determines the points, b\ a?, c?, d% which give, 
upon the horizontal projection, t o, of the latter, the perspective 
of the points, a, b, c, d. 

In like manner, through the point, v', in the vertical projection, 
draw the visual rays, a! v', b' V,/v', e V, intersecting the plane of 
the picture in the points, a", b",f, and e" ; these last being, conse- 
quently, the vertical projections of the perspective of the points, 
a', b', e,f. 

As, because of the position given to the plane of the picture, 
the perspective of the object is not visible, since all the points are 
situated in the vertical line, t t', the plane being represented on 
edge, we must imagine this plane as turned over upon the vertical 
plane of the drawing ; whilst we must suppose the line, T o, the 
horizontal projection of the picture-plane, as turned about the 
point, o, as a centre, through a right angle, bringing it to coincide 
with the ground line, L m. When this is done, the points, a 1 , V, 
c 2 , d 1 , will describe arcs of circles, and, finally, coincide with the 
points, a 3 , b', c 3 , d 2 , on the ground line. Next, upon these last 
erec^ perpendiculars, to meet the horizontals, drawn through the 
points, a", b",f", e" ; the points of intersection of these cross lines 
will be the perspectives, a 4 , b*, c*, d*, of the corners, a, b, c, d, of 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



159 



the top of the prism. We have, likewise, the points, e 2 ,/ 2 ,g", h, for 
the perspectives of the comers of the bottom of the prism, which 
is parallel to the top; consequently, by joining all these points 
together in couples, as indicated in fig. /&, we obtain the entire 
perspective of the external outline of the prism. As the prism is 
hollow, we shall see in the perspective view the outline, i! m! n' o', 
corresponding to the edges of the part hollowed out. 

The point of sight, of which v and v' are the geometrical projec- 
tions, is projected upon the picture-plane in the points, v, i> 2 ; and 
when the picture-plane is turned over, the point will be found at v", 
which is the position of the point of sight upon the perspective 
drawing. 

It must be observed, that in this example the lines, a* b*, a* d*, 
and J 4 c 4 , which express the perspective of the corresponding lines, 
ab,ad, and b c, are the intersections with the plane of the picture, 
of planes passing through these lines, and through the point of sight. 
Now, since the intersection of two planes is always a straight line, 
the following conclusions may be drawn ; that, 

432. First, The perspective of a straight line upon a plane is a 
straight line. 

It may also be remarked, that the verticals, such as b* e 2 , c 4 h, d* g, 
are the perspectives of the vertical edges, projected in the points, 
b, c,d; whence we deduce that, 

433. Secondly, The perspectives of vertical lines are verticals, 
when ilie plane of the picture is itself vertical. 

It will further be seen, that the horizontals, I* c 4 , d* a*, e 2 h,f g, 
of the perspective view, correspond to the straight lines projected 
horizontally in b c and d c, which are parallel to the picture ; 
whence it may be gathered, that, 

434. Thirdly, The perspective of any straight horizontal line, 
parallel to the picture, is itself horizontal. 

Further, it follows from the two preceding principles, that all 
lines parallel to the plane of the picture are represented, in per- 
spective, by lines parallel to themselves. 

Finally, the straight lines, a" b\ d* c 4 , e" / 2 , and Ti g, which all 
converge to the same point, v", the projection of the point of sight 
upon the plane of the picture, correspond to the edges, ab, dc, ef, 
which are horizontal, but perpendicular to the plane of the picture ; 
whence it follows, that, 

435. Fourthly, The perspectives of lines which are horizontal, but 
perpendicular to the plane of the picture, are straight lines, which 
converge to the point of sight, and are consequently foreshortened. 

It will be seen, from figs. 1 and 2, that the whole width of the 
perspective representation, fig. A, is comprised between the points, 
b* and d 2 , which lie on the outermost visual rays, drawn in the 
horizontal projection ; and that its height is limited by the two 
points, a" and e", which correspond to tho extreme visual rays in 
the vertical projection. The angle formed by the extreme visual 
rays is termed tho optical angle. In the present example, this angle, 
b 2 v d 2 , in the horizontal projection, differs from tho angle, a" v' e", 
in (ho vortical projection. 

Tho positions of the object and point of sight being given, tho 
dimensions of the perspective representation vary according to 
the position of tho plane of tho picture. It will thus be: .seen, on 
referring to fig. 1, that if this piano bo removed from t t' to 1 1', 
nearer to the object, the limits to tho perspective representation 



by the extreme visual rays will be enlarged ; whilst, on the con- 
trary, if we remove the plane of the picture to the position, f t\ 
nearer to the point of sight, the limits will be sensibly narrowed. 

Again, if, in place of moving the plane of the picture, the point 
of sight is removed further off, or brought nearer to, the size of the 
perspective outline will thereby be augmented or diminished. It 
may therefore be concluded, that, 

436. Fifthly, The dimensions in the perspective representation do 
not wholly depend, either on the actual size of the object, or on the 
distance from which it is observed, but also on the relative distances 
of the point of sight and of the object from the plane of the picture. 

Thus the sides, d a and c b, fig. 1, are actually equal, but the 
former is further from the plane of the picture than the latter ; so 
that whilst this is represented by the space, c* b*, fig. A, that is 
limited to the much smaller space, d* a*, in the perspective view. 



SECOND PROBLEM. 

the perspective of a cylinder. 
Figures 3 and 4. 

437. To obtain the perspective outline of a vertical cylinder, such 
as the one projected horizontally in b, fig. 4, and vertically in b', 
fig. 3, we proceed, as in the preceding example, to draw through 
the point of sight, v' v, a series of visual rays, extending to the 
various points, a, b, c, d, e, taken on the upper end of the cylinder, 
by preference at equal distances apart. These lines intersect the 
plane, t t', of the picture, in the points, d 2 , c 2 , a 2 , g 2 , &c, in the 
horizontal projection, and in the points, a", c", d", &c, in the verti- 
cal projection. 

By bringing the plane, t t', of the picture, into that of the 
diagram before us, or what is equivalent to it, by finding the points, 
g 3 , a 3 , &c, by means of arcs, drawn with the centre, o, on which 
the plane is supposed to turn, and drawing the horizontal lines 
through the corresponding points in the vertical projection of the 
picture-plane, we obtain the points, c 4 , d*, a*, g*, &c, which are 
points in an elliptic curve representing the top of the cylinder in 
perspective, which is visible, in consequence of the point of sight 
being above it. 

The same points, a, b, c, d, of the horizontal projection, give, in 
combination with their vertical projections,^',/", c", &c, the per- 
spectives, d b , e b ,f b , g b , of the bottom of the cylinder, of which, 
obviously, only a part is visible. 

The two vertical generatrices, d* d b ,g i g b , being drawn tangential 
to tho upper and lower ellipses, complete tho perspective outline 
of the cylinder, fig. LB. 

As this cylinder is hollow, an operation similar to the preceding 
will be called for in delineating tho upper visible edge of the hol- 
lo wed-out portion. 

It must bo observed that, in taking an oven number ^C di\ isions, 
at equal distances apart, upon the horizontal projection of the 
cylinder, and setting them off from the diameter, c g, parallel to 
the plane of the picture, we have always a couple of points situated 
upon the same perpendicular to the plane, and o[' which the pe*> 
speetives are, consequently, situated on the Borne straight lino. 

drawn through the projection, i", of the poinl of sight This 



160 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



occurs with the points, b, d, the perspectives, b*, d*, of which, are 
situated upon the line, v" d\ so that we have a means of verifying 
the preceding construction. 



THIRD PROBLEM. 

the perspective of a regular solid, when the poi>'t of 
sight is situated in a plane passing through its axis, 
and perpendicular to the plane of the picture. 

Figures 5 and 6. 

438. Let v and v' be the projections of the point of sight, situ- 
ated in the vertical plane, v o, passing through the axis, o o', of 
the solid, c c', and perpendicular to the plane, t t', of the picture. 
It will be seen at once, that in the perspective view, fig. ©, this 
point must be projected on the vertical line, v" v\ representing the 
axis of the object, and in relation to which all the lateral edges of 
the object are symmetrical. Such are the sides, a b and c d, which 
are perpendicular to the plane of the picture, and which are repre- 
sented in perspective by the lines, a* b* and d 1 c 4 , both directed to 
the point of sight, v". It is the same with the edges. / g, h i, of 
which the perspectives, f* g*, h* i 4 , likewise converge to the point 
of sight, d*. 

As for the vertical edges, they retain their vertical position in 
the perspective, and the horizontal lines, a d,l m,nk, c b, parallel 
to the plane of the picture, are rendered in the perspective view by 
parallels, such as a* d l , I* m l , n* k l , c* b*. 

It may be gathered from the solution of this problem, that when- 
ever the point of sight is in a plane, passing through the axis of a 
regular solid, and perpendicular to the plane of the picture, the 
perspective representation will be symmetrical with reference to the 
centre line, and that it is, therefore, quite sufficient to go through 
the constructive operations for one side only of the figure. 



FOURTH PROBLEM. 

THE PERSPECTIVE OF A BEARING-BRASS, PLACED WITH ITS AXIS 
VERTICAL. 

Figures *I and 8. 

439. The point of sight being situated, as in the preceding 
example, in a vertical plane, passing through the axis of the object, 
and perpendicular to the picture-plane, the perspective will like- 
wise be symmetrical in reference to the centre line, v" v* ; and it is 
unnecessary to notice this peculiarity further. The inside of the 
brass being cylindrical, and being terminated by horizontal semi- 
circular baseSj the perspective of these bases will be rendered by 
a couple of regular semi-ellipses, of which it will be sufficient to 
determine the axes. The transverse axis, a* c 4 , is equal to the 
perspective of the straight line, a c, which is horizontal and parallel 
to the picture-plane ; and the semi-conjugate axis, b* d', is equal to 
the perspective of the line, b d or V a', which is also horizontal, 
but is perpendicular to the plane of the picture, and is conse- 
quently foreshortened, whilst it coincides with a line passing 
through the point of sight, p*. It will be remarked, that the 



transverse axis of the ellipse, corresponding to the upper end of 
the semi-cylinder, is equal to a* c 4 , but that the conjugate axis 
is foreshortened to a greater extent than that, b* d*, of the lower 
one, in consequence of being at a less distance below the point of 
sight. The effect of the perspective, in this case, is well rendered 
in fig. [B). 



FIFTH PROBLEM. 

the perspective of a stopcock, with a spherical eoss. 
Figures 9 and 10. 

440. In earning out the general principle, it will be conceived 
that, in obtaining the perspective representation of a sphere, we 
should draw through the point of sight a series of rays, tangential 
to the outer surface ; but in order to ascertain the points of con- 
tact of these tangents, it will be necessary to imagine a series of 
planes as passing through the sphere, producing circular sections, 
and then to find the perspective of each of these circles. These 
being found, a curve, drawn to circumscribe them, will be the 
perspective of the sphere. 

In the example, figs. 9 and 10, the point of sight being still 
chosen as before — that is, as situated in a plane passing through 
the centre of the sphere, and perpendicular to the picture-plane — ■ 
the perspective of the sphere will, on this account, simply be an 
ellipse, having for conjugate axis the base, a 2 £ 2 , of the optical 
angle, a 2 v b, in the horizontal projection ; and for transverse axis, 
the base, c 2 d', of the angle, c 2 V <P, in the vertical projection ; 
because the right cone, formed by the series of visual rays tan- 
gential to, and enveloping the sphere, is obliquely intersected by 
the plane of the picture. If, however, the point of sight were 
situated upon a horizontal line, passing through the centre, o, of 
the sphere, the perspective of the latter would evidently be a 
circle. 

The spherical part of the stopcock is traversed by a horizontal 
opening, for the reception of the key, and the edge, e /, of this 
opening, being situated in a plane parallel to the picture-plane, 
will, in the perspective, fig. H, be rendered by a circle, of which the 
diameter is e 2 / 2 . 

As to the cylindrical flanges on either side of the stopcock, for 
forming its junction with a line of piping, the semicircle, a g b, is 
represented by a portion of an ellipse, having the horizontal line, 
a* b*, corresponding to a b ; and the vertical, g 3 o 2 , being the per- 
spective of g° o". The circle, a h b g, the horizontal projection of 
the surface of the uppermost flange, is represented in the perspec- 
tive view by a perfect ellipse, as is also the upper visible edge of 
the inner tubular portion. But this is the same as the case in fig. 
3, and the ellipses may be formed in a similar manner. 

The perspective representation of a circle, however situated, 
otherwise than parallel with regard to the plane of the picture, is 
always a perfect ellipse ; but the transverse axis of the ellipse does 
not coincide with, or is not the representation of, any diameter of 
the circle ; for it is evident, that the more distant half of the circle 
must be more foreshortened in the perspective, and must occupy 
a less space than the anterior half, whilst the ellipse is equally 
divided by its transverse axis. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



161 



When the point of sight is in a line perpendicular to the circle, 
the rays from the latter will form a right cone ; and if the plane of 
the picture is not parallel to the circle, the section determined by- 
it will be an ellipse, as is well known. Again, if the circle is not 
perpendicular to the central visual ray, the cone of rays will be 
elliptical, and the sections of such cone will be ellipses, of various 
proportions, that parallel to the circle, however, being a circle. 

The transverse axis of the perspective ellipse is the perspective 
of that chord in the original circle, which is subtended by the arc, 
between the points of contact of the extreme visual rays, as pro- 
jected iu the plane of the circle. 



SIXTH PROBLEM. 

THE PERSPECTIVE OF AN OBJECT PLACED IN ANT POSITION WITH 

regard to the plane of the picture. 
Figures 11 and 12. 

441. In each of the preceding problems, we have supposed one 
or other of the surfaces of the objects to be parallel or perpendicular 
to the plane of the picture ; but it may happen that all the sides of 
the object may form some angle with this plane. It is this case 
which we propose examining in figs. 11 and 12. 

Let a b c d be the horizontal projection of a square, of which 
the sides are inclined to the plane, t t', of the picture, and of 
which it is proposed to determine the perspective. The point of 
sight being projected in v and v', if we employ the method 
adopted in figs. 1 and 2, we shall find the points, a\ b 2 , c 2 , d\ 
to be the horizontal projections, and a", b", c", d", the vertical 
projections of the corners of the square; and when we have 
brought the plane of the picture, t t', into the plane of the 
present diagram, as before, we shall find the actual positions of 
these points to be at a", b*, c*, d*. If we join the'se points, we 
shall have a quadrilateral figure, of which the two opposite sides, 
a* b*, c* d\ converge to the same point, / whilst the other two 
sides converge to the point, /'. These two points are termed 
vanishing points. They are determined geometrically, by drawino- 
through v, the horizontal projection of the point of sight, the 
-straight lines, v t and v t', parallel to the sides, a b and b c, of the 
given square, and prolonging these lines until they cut the line, 
T t', representing the plane of the picture. Having drawn through 
v' the horizontal, v' v', termed the horizontal line or vanishing 
plane, set oft" the distance, v t, from v" to /, and the distance, 
v t', from v" to /', and/ and/' will be the required, vanishing 
points. 

It follows from the preceding, that 

When die straight lines which are inclined to the plane of the 
picture are parallel to each other, their perspectives will converge in 
one point, situated on tlie horizontal line, and termed the vanishing 
point. 

When several faces or sides, situated in different planes, are 
parallel to each other, their perspectives all converge to tho saino 
vanishing point, which allows of a great simplification of the 
operations. 

Thus, the edges of the horizontal faces, K i and h" i", of the 
quadrangular prism, being respectively parallel to Ihc sides of the 



square, abed, are represented in perspective by the straight lines, 
i 3 e 3 , i* e 4 , converging to the first vanishing point,/, and the straight 
lines, i 3 g 3 , i* g 4 , converging to the second point,/'. 

The cone, f f', which is traversed laterally by the prism, has its 
apex projected horizontally in the point, s, fig. 12, and vertically in 
the point, s', which, with its axis, appertains to fig. 11. The per- 
spective of the point, s s', on the plane of the picture, is found, in 
the usual wsy, to be at s in the horizontal projection, and at s' in 
the vertical projection ; and when the plane of the picture is brought 
into the plane of the diagram, these points are represented by the 
points, s 2 and s 2 , upon the same vertical, s" o 2 , which is, consequently, 
the perspective of the axis, o s', of the cone, and the point, s 2 , is 
the perspective of the apex of the cone. 

If we draw the perspectives of the two bases, k I and m n, of the 
frustum of a cone, according to the methods already given, it will 
only remain to draw through the point, s 2 , the two lines, s 2 m! and 
s 2 n, tangential to the ellipses, representing the bases, which will 
complete the perspective of the entire object, as in fig. IF". 



APPLICATIONS. 

FLOUR- MILL DRIVEN BY BELTS. 

PLATES XLIV. AND XLV. 

442. The elementary principles of perspective which we have 
laid down, will admit of application to the most complicated sub- 
jects, and, among other things, to complete views of mechanical 
and architectural constructions. In Plate XLV.-we have given 
an example, which will enable the student to form a general idea 
of this branch of drawing. This Plate is the perspective repre- 
sentation of the machinery of a flour-mill driven by belts, and as 
fitted up by M. Darblay, at Corbeil. Before proceeding, however, 
to discuss this as a study of perspective, we propose to describe 
the various details of the mechanism composing the mill, and 
which we have represented, in geometrical projection, in Plato 
XLIV. 

The construction of flour-mills has latterly undergone very im- 
portant improvements, as well in reference to the principal driving 
machinery, as to the minor movements, and the cleaning and 
dressing apparatus. As such machinery belongs to a most impor- 
tant class, we have selected a mill, as an illustrative example of tho 
subject beforo us, giving all the recently improved modifications 
now at work, both in this country and on the Continent 

443. Before the introduction of what is known as tho American 
system, very large uncovered millstones, of upwards of six feet, or 
two metres, in diameter, were employed ; and these gave what were 
then considered very good and economical results. These mills 
were worked by water-wheels or wind-wheels; hut as improve* 

ments gradually crept in, not only was the entire internal mechanism 
changed, hut also the motor, and the description of stones. Tho 
American Hour-mills, commonly known on the Continent as 

English mills, differed from the older mills in the employment ol' 

smaller stones, with furrowed surfaces, and in their being driven 

at a much greater speed, requiring, in consequence, more wheel- 
ge;* to bring up tho speed. A mill on the old Bystem, with ; 



162 



THE FRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



stones of six fec-t in diameter, ordinarily goes at the rate of 55 to 
60 revolutions per minute, being moved, we shall suppose, by a 
water-wheel, making 10 or 12 turns in the same time. Such a 
mill will only require a large toothed-wheel and a lantern-wheel ; 
or better, a large bevil-wheel and a bevil pinion, in the ratio of 5 or 
6 to 1. 

But a modern mill, in which the stones are generally 4 feet or 
13 m. in diameter, should make 115 or 120 revolutions per minute; 
whilst it may be impelled by an overshot water-wheel, making only 
3 or 4 revolutions per minute ; so that it is necessary to employ 
multiplying gearing between the power and the work. When this 
multiplication is obtained by gearing, two or three pairs of wheels 
are generally employed. The essential features of this gearing, 
consisting of a large horizontal spur-wheel, chiving a spur-pinion 
on the mill-stone spindle, have recently been superseded, in many 
instances, by belt and pulley gearing. This arrangement has the 
advantage of rendering the motions more easy, and of allowing of 
the stoppage of a single pair of stones, without stopping the prime 
mover and the whole mill, which is a very essential point, more 
particularly in a large and important mill, where many pairs of 
stones are at work. 

The drawing, Plate XLIV., represents a mill of this descrip- 
tion, driven by belts, and erected by M. Darblay, at Corbeil. It 
comprises 10 pairs of stones, placed in two parallel rows. The 
establishment contains several sets of stones, exactly like these. 
Each set of mills is driven by a hydraulic turbine, on Fourneyron's 
system. 

Fig. 1 represents the plan of a portion of the principal gearing, 
and one of the rows of stones. Fig. 2 is an elevation, prolonged 
as far as the vertical shaft of the turbine. Fig. 3 is a transverse 
vertical section, taken at right angles to the horizontal driving- 
shaft. 

At a, in fig. 2, is represented the upper end of the vertical 
wrought-iron shaft, upon which the turbine is fixed lower down. 
This shaft is supported by a step-bearing at its lower extremity, and 
in a brass collar bearing, a, at its upper end ; this bearing being in 
two pieces, adjusted in the top of the hollow casting, b, resting upon 
the foundation-plate, c, and also bolted by a bracket to the cast- 
iron pedestal, d, of the bearing, which receives the end journal, b, 
of the main driving-shaft, e. 

This shaft, e, has fixed upon it, in the first place, the bevil-pinion, 
r, with strong thick cast-iron teeth, driven by the horizontal bevil- 
wheel, g, fitted with wooden teeth, and keyed upon the end of the 
turbine-shaft, a. This shaft is connected by a coupling-box, c, to a 
wrought-iron shaft, a', which passes up to the higher floors of the 
building, where it serves to drive the various accessory apparatus 
of the mill, such as the sack-hoists, pressing, washing, and dress- 
ing machines, and endless-chain elevators. At each floor, the shaft 
is supported by a collar-bearing, like that shown in section at d, in 
fig. 2. 

The horizontal shaft, e, which drives the two rows of stones, is 
in several pieces, joined together by cast-iron couplings, as at e, 
and it is supported at different points of its length by the pedestal- 
bearings,/, each with its oil-receiver at the top, and bolted down 
to the base of the arched cast-iron standards, h. These standards 
are formed into receptacles at their tops, to receive the brass 



footstep-bearings and steel pivot-piece, to support the lower case 
hardened extremities, g, of the vertical shafts, i. An adjusting- 
screw, i, is introduced from below, to raise the bearing when 
necessary ; and the upper journal of the shaft revolves in the in- 
verted cup-bearing, j, which is bolted to the cross beams of the 
ceiling. 

Each of the vertical shafts, i, has keyed upon it a bevil-pinion, 
k, the teeth of which are cast upon it, as well as two horizontal 
pulleys, l, of the same diameter. The pinions gear with the 
wooden-toothed bevil-wheels, k', keyed upon the horizontal driving- 
shaft, e ; and the pulleys are put in communication by means of the 
leather belts, h, with other similar pulleys, i/, of the same diameter. 
These last are eacli keyed upon the cast-iron shaft of a pair of 
stones, m. A tension pulley, n, upon a short vertical spindle, sup- 
ported by the two arms of a second vertical spindle, o, serves to 
stretch the belt of each pair of stones to the requisite degree of 
tightness. For tin's purpose, a lever, k, is fitted to the vertical 
spindle, o, and to its free extremity is attached a cord, passing over 
a couple of guide-pulleys, Z, and sustaining a small weight, m. 
Thus, in the position given to each of the levers, k, in the drawing, 
the weights are supposed to be acting ; and the belts are, conse- 
quently, in a stretched state, and the motion of the pulleys, l, is 
communicated to the pulleys, l\ But if the weight be lifted up, 
so as not to act, the levers, k, will be set free, and also the tension- 
pulleys, n; and the belts will be slack, so that the motion will no 
longer be communicated, and the pulleys, l', and consequently the 
pairs of stones, will be stopped. The vertical spindles, o, are sup- 
ported in bearings, carried by cast-iron brackets, p, bolted to the 
under side of the cross beams. The tension-pulleys can thus 
assume various positions, whilst their supporting-arms vibrate upon 
the vertical spindles, o. In order that the belts may not fall when 
they are slack, iron fingers, n, are placed at intervals, attached to 
vertical rods, o, depending from the ceiling. 

As the millstone shaft is generally made ef cast-iron, its lower 
end is fitted with a case-hardened step, which revolves upon a steel 
pivot-piece, q, adjusted in the bottom of a brass footstep-bearing, 
fig. 4, which is itself contained in a cylindrical cast-iron cup, r, 
carried by the box, n', formed in the casting, p', which surmounts 
the solid masonry, o', upon which the entire framing of the mill is 
supported. Screws are introduced through the sides of the foot- 
step-bearing receptacle, by means of which the centre of the shaft 
is adjusted ; whilst the shaft is adjusted vertically, and, consequently, 
the distance between the stones, by means of the screwed spindle, 
s, which has a small spur-wheel, t, keyed upon it, with which a 
small pinion, u, is in gear, this last being actuated by the handle, v, 
upon its vertical spindle. By turning this handle to the right or 
the left, the small wheels are set in motion ; and as the spindle, s, 
cannot otherwise turn, it is forced to rise or fall, and with it the 
bearing and footstep of the millstone shaft. It is in this manner 
that the pitch, or distance, between the two stones is adjusted with 
all desirable precision, according to the kind of work required from 
the stones. 

The upper end of the millstone shaft is also case-hardened, and 
is entered a certain distance into the boss of the centre-piece, w, 
fig. 3, which is fixed across the eye of the upper stone, or runner, 
q, and firmly imbedded into the stone at either side. On the 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



163 



top of the boss of the centre-piece, w, is a species of metal saucer, 
into which dips the lower end of the pipe which conducts the gTain 
down from the funnels, k, generally made of copper. These fun- 
nels, which receive the grain, communicate by the pipes, y, with a 
single hopper above, and rest upon the wooden cross pieces, s, fig. 
2, held down on one side by a hinge, z, and on the other by a 
vertical iron rod, z', by means of which they are raised or lowered 
at pleasure, so as to set the bottom of their pipes at a greater or 
less distance above the bottom of the saucer below. The object 
of this arrangement is to allow more or less grain to enter between 
the stones. The supports of the cross-pieces, s, are fixed upon a 
wooden casing, t, which covers each pair of stones, a space being 
left inside all round the stones, into which the produce of the 
grinding falls, as it issues from between the stones. It is thence 
conducted, by suitable channels, either to receiving-chests, or to the 
elevators, by which it is carried to the upper part of the building, 
to undergo the subsequent processes. 

The lower immoveable stones, q', of the same diameter as the 
runners above, are fitted with metal eyes, b', furnished with 
brasses, which embrace the shafts of the runners, and assist in pre- 
serving their perfectly vertical position. These stones are grooved, 
as indicated in the plan of one of them, fig. 1 ; that is to say, shal- 
low channels are cut out of their working surfaces, so as to j>resent 
on one side a sharp edge, and act with the runner like scissors, 
cutting each grain as it comes upon them. The fine close-lined 
dressing, which is given to the surface between these channels, 
completes Ihe fracture and crushing of the grain. These lower 
stones rest upon the cast-iron plates, u, but with the intervention 
of the three adjusting screws, a', which allow of the obtainment 
of an exact level; whilst four lateral screws, a\ fig. 1, entered 
through the lateral cast-iron frame, serve to adjust with accuracy 
the centre of the stone. 

The base plate and side frames are not only bolted to the cross 
beams of the building, but they are also supported at intervals by 
cast-iron columns, v, placed between each pair of stones, and 
resting upon the plates, o\ and the solid masonry below them. 
The ceiling is additionally supported by the solid wooden columns, 
x, placed at the ends and between the two rows of stones. An 
iron railing, y, is placed on each side of the driving-gear, to prevent 
accidents which might arise from persons passing too near the 
heavy wheels. Cavities are constructed in the masonry, for the 
reception of the mechanism for adjusting the footstep-bearings of 
the runner-shafts, already described. These openings arc usually 
covered by suitable doors. 



THE REPRESENTATION OF THE MILL IN PER- 
SPECTIVE. 

PLATE XtY. 

445. It was stated, in the preliminary instructions relating to 
perspective drawing, that the perspective dimensions depend on the 
position, both of the point of sight and of the object, from the plane 
of the picture, which is necessarily limited in si/.o. 

In the perspective delineation of one or more objects, we should 
consider, not only from what distance theobjed should he viewed, 



but also at what height the eye, or the horizontal line, should be 
placed. In the example selected, we have supposed the point of 
sight to be placed at the height of a man's eye ; but it is evident 
that this height of horizon is not invariable. It depends, more or 
less, on what part of the object we wish to develop more particu- 
larly in the perspective representation. Thus, for a machine of but 
little height, the point of sight should be lower ; whilst it should, 
in all cases, be at a sufficient height to enable the spectator to take 
in the entire object, without changing his position. 

In architectural subjects, the horizontal line should never be 
taken at a less height than that of a man's eye; whilst, in general, 
a good effect may be anticipated, when the distance of the spectator 
from the picture is equal to about one and a half times, or twice 
the width of the paper, provided there is, at least, as great a distance 
between the plane of the picture, and those parts of the object 
which are nearest to it.* Taste and practice in drawing in perspec- 
tive will be the best guides in the choice of the dispositions leading 
to the happiest effects. , 

We have at 1 1', figs. 1 and 2, Plate XLIV., indicated the position 
assumed for the plane of the picture, which is supposed to be brought 
into the plane of the diagram in fig. 5, Plate XLV. 

The point of sight, agreeably to the recommendation we have 
given, is supposed to be placed, with reference to the picture, at a 
distance equal to about twice the width occupied by the machinery 
of the mill in the vertical projection. It does not lie within the 
limits of the paper in the geometrical projections, Plate XLIV. ; 
but it is projected into the plane of the perspective picture in the 
point, v', fig. 5. 

In laying out the main design of this perspective picture, we 
must commence by finding the positions of the axial lines of all 
the columns, iron shafts, horizontal and vertical, and, in general, 
of all symmetrical objects. Thus, through the points, 1, 2, 3, 4, 
&c, fig. 1, we must draw a series of visual rays, converging to the 
point of sight, and cutting the projection, t t', of the plane of the 
picture, in the points, 1", 2", 3", 4", &c, which, in the picture 
itself, fig. 5, Plate XLV., are represented by the points, 1', 2', 3', 4', 
&c. 

The vertical lines, drawn through each of these points, will be 
the axial lines sought. We next obtain the perspective of the 
objects situated nearest to the picture plane, as the column, x, for 
example. This column being very near the plane of the picture, 
and the visual rays tangential to each sido of the cylindrical sur- 
face, being both very much inclined to the same side, its diameter 
in its perspective plane seems proportionately greater than it is 
in reality ; but this is corrected by tho obliquity with which this 
part of the perspective picture should be viewed. For it must be 
borne in mind, that all perspective pictures must be viewed from 
the single and precise point of sight in relation to which they are 
drawn; otherwise, the pictures will have an untrue and distorted 
appearance. 

We next determine the perspective of the columns, v, the axes 
of all which are situated in a plane perpendicular to tho plane of 



• We do nut Bee the force of tUla remark, for whs Bhould not a perspective repre- 
«i ii i :ii ion he drawn lull si/.e, or even to a lamer Boalef [n one ease, the object must 

he auppOSid as close tO the plane Of the picture, an. I, in the Othl P, U !>•■!» ecu it an, I 
(he point Of light, Ti. Lit i I Km I 10 I mi, 'i. 



164 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



the picture ; so that they will diminish gradually in height, being 
limited by a couple of lines, converging in the point of sight, v'. It 
follows hence, that when the perspective of the first column has 
been obtained, it will be sufficient to draw through the principal 
points of the mouldings, and other parts, a series of liaes, converg- 
ing in the point of sight, »', which will give the perspective posi- 
tions of the corresponding points on the other columns, together 
with their heights. 

It is the same with the perspective of each of the runner shafts, 
the pulleys, and other details, the centres of all which lie in the 
vertical plane, passing through the axes of the columns, v. 

As to the bevil-wheels, k, the axes of which are vertical, and are 
projected horizontally in the points, 2, 10, 11, fig. 1, Plate XLIV., 
and consequently represented in perspective by the vertical lines, 
2', 10', 11', &c, fig. 5, Plate XLV.— it is well to find the perspec- 
tive of the apex, s', of the cone, of which the web carrying the teeth 
is a frustum ; because the perspectives of all the edges of the teeth 
converge to this point. 

The edges of the teeth of the bevil- wheel, k', the axis of which is 
horizontal, are also represented in perspective by straight lines con- 
verging in this same point, s'; and as to the lines defining the sides 
or flanks of the teeth, as they also lie in cones, the surfaces of 
which, however, are perpendicular to the first, their perspectives 
likewise converge to a single point — the perspective of the apex of 
the cone, on the surface of which they lie. 

The centre lines of the arms of the bevil-wheel, k', converging 
to the centre of this wheel, are represented in perspective by lines 
which are directed towards the point, o 2 , the perspective of that 
centre. 

Since the perspectives of the objects which are repeated, and of 
which the axes lie in the same plane perpendicular to the picture 
plane, are always alike, and differ only in being of diminished 
dimensions according to their distance from the plane of the picture, 
it will be easily understood that when the perspective of one of 
them has been determined, the operations for determining the per- 
spectives of 'the rest may be much simplified, especially by prolong- 
ing the various lines to the point of sight. This observation applies 
to the wheel gearing, the bearings and frames which support the 
various shafts, the pulleys, and other often- repeated details. It is 
thus that, in fig. 5, are drawn the principal converging lines, indi- 
cating the various heights, and giving the visual rays, which could 
not all be given in the horizontal projection, fig. 1, but which 
should, nevertheless, be drawn, in order to determine, by their 
intersection with the plane of the picture, 1 1', the whole of the 
horizontal widths. 

Fig. 6 is a complete shaded representation of this perspective 
study, drawn to a larger scale, in order to render the various details 
more easily comprehended. This view only differs from fig. 5 in 
being more complete, and in being turned the reverse way. It is 
given with a twofold object — as an example of the delineation in 
perspective of mechanical and architectural objects, and to give an 
idea of shading such subjects, the shades being graduated in tone 
according to the distances and positions of the several surfaces, in 
strict accordance with the principles laid down in the sections 
treating of shading and colourin°\ 



NOTES OF RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN 
FLOUR-MILLS. 

By far the best millstones used, in this or any other country, 
are made of French materials. The stones from the valley of the 
Marne have the credit of performing more work, and turning out 
better and whiter flour, than any others. They are purely siliceous 
in composition, and slightly tinged with ferruginous matter; they 
are now exported to every part of the world where the British sys- 
tem of grinding is followed. Formerly, great pains were taken to 
extract enormous stones from the quarry beds, to be used either as 
monolith grinders, or two or three only, combined into one, in a 
very rude manner, open faces being selected to grind upon, instead 
of the modern artificial furrows. The grand improvement of cut- 
ting furrows in the grinding faces, in such way as to improve the 
grinding action without interfering with the centrifugal effect, is an 
English invention, introduced only forty years ago. Hence the 
uncertainty attending the use of porous or partially cellular stones 
was removed ; and the French makers gradually improved upon the 
idea, by building up together small fragments of stone of equal 
hardness, so as to insure a good grinding surface throughout — this 
being unattainable in large masses, where softer and more porous 
parts frequently occur alongside the harder areas. The makers 
thus contrived to get composite stones, each increment of the sur- 
face of which was of the same grain, hardness, porosity, and colour ; 
and as the manufacture grew up to be an important branch of 
industry, the niceties of suiting the materials to the peculiarities 
of the country where the stones were to be used, the special system 
adopted by the millers, and even the character of the grain to be 
reduced, were all carefully attended to. Thus it is, that the mill- 
stone manufacture has become a precise art. In building such 
stones, the workman selects a solid centre-piece, or eye-stone ; and 
round this he sets his choice-selected masses, previously bound 
together, and fixes the whole with plaster of Paris, such accuracy 
being observed in the fittings, that the entire structure hardly ex- 
hibits a joint. The smith then encircles the stone with a retaining 
hoop of wrought-iron, put on hot, so as to fit tightly on cooling. 
The dresser then reduces the yet uneven surface to a plane; and 
the furrow-cutter follows the dresser, first setting off, and then 
cutting out, the grooves which are to produce the sharp cutting 
edges. The eye is then completed, and the running stone balanced, 
to be of equal weight all round, cavities being left for the insertion 
of lead, when the stone is started in work, so that it may run with 
perfect steadiness. A second hoop of cold iron is then added to 
give further strength, and the stone is left to dry. M. Roger, a 
French maker of repute, produces annually some 500 millstones, 
and an immense number of the inferior or burr stones — all excavated 
from the valley of the Marne. 

The ingenious and important contrivance of the "antifriction 
curve," by Mr. Schiele, has found an important application in the 
grinding surfaces of millstones, in which it has introduced a striking 
departure from old-established principles. The inventor was led 
to the consideration of this system of working surfaces by the 
irregularities of w 7 ear in the common conical plugged stopcock. 
Considering the truncated cone of the stopcock plug to bo divided 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



165 



into a series of infinitely short lengths, he proposed to take a more 
obtuse cone for each larger portion, and in such progression, that 
it would require equal pressure for every portion of the surface to 
cause a uniform sinking of the plug in the course of wear. The 
contour thus obtained is of a peculiar curve, as shown in fig. 1. 
The main feature of the generating curve for such a surface, is the 
equality of all tangents drawn from the curve surface to the axis ; 



Fi<r. 1. 



Fig. 2. 




1-2 size. 

hence the use of the simple instrument illustrated by fig. 2. This 
contrivance consists merely of a straight brass wire, a, jointed at 
one end by a pin to the upper surface of a small wooden slider, b, 
which is hollowed in the centre to receive the tip of the finger in 
drawing a curve. A small drawing-pen, c, ingeniously formed 
out of a slip of steel bent over the wire, a, and screwed to a brass 
bush, so as to form two broad nibs, is arranged to slide from end 
to end of the wire, being adjustable at any point by stiff friction, 
caused by a spring, which, fitting a groove in the wire, retains the 
vertical position of the pen. In drawing a curve, the rod or wire 
carrying the pen is set at right angles with the slider, b, which is 
drawn in a right line along the edge of a ruler, whilst the wire 

carrying the pen is left to 
Fig. 3. find its way from its initial 

angular position, to that of 
a line in the same plane as 
the slider ; and, in doing 
this, tho pen describes the 
curve we have represented. 
Fig. 3 is a vertical section 
of a millstone arrangement 
on this system, showing 
how the gradual variation 
of tho curvature, in rela- 
tion to the increasing dis- 
tance of the parts from the 
centre of motion, equalizes 
the rubbing pressure in the most perfect manner. The same sketch 




also shows the adaptation of the principle to footsteps, together 
with a new system of lubrication of these surfaces so liable to 
extreme abrasion. The oil supply is kept in an elevated vessel, a, 
whence a pipe, b, proceeds downwards to the footsteps, upon 
which a pressure is thus constantly kept by the oil column, a stop- 
cock being introduced to regulate the supply. 

Mr. Schiele now makes independent or self-contained flour-mills 
of this kind, of such simplicity and compactness, that four com- 
plete mills, or sets of stones, placed together, may be worked in a 
room 10 feet square ; a single shaft driving the set, from the cen- 
tre, by means of a horizontal band-pulley, from which endless 
bands pass to corresponding pulleys on the spindle above the 
upper stone. In mills of this kind, when by wear the runner has 
sunk three inches, the adjusting screws of the steps arrive at the 
end of the 3-inch traverse allotted to them. The runner is then 
lifted from its seat, and the thin end is shortened to this amount. 
This plan of renovation may be repeated twice, thus allowing for 
12 inches wear in a 26-inch runner; and the stones, so reduced, 
are still valuable for smaller mills. 

The peculiar portability of these mills is a valuable feature of 
improvement. No fixtures are required, as the weight of the parts 
insures steadiness in working. Perfect uniformity of wear in the 
grinding surfaces is attained by the use of the curved face ; and 
the expensive dressing necessary in flat stones is here entirely ob- 
viated, as the occasional grinding of hard substances roughens the 
faces to an extent sufficient for grinding all the softer materials, 
which gradually smooth down the faces. 

Any of the materials ground in common mills, and many which 
the latter cannot properly act upon, are capable of reduction in 
these mills. For flour and other finely-ground substances, a few 
air-channels are formed down the face of the runner. Their best 
speed is only half that of common stones; and the inventor states 
that his experimental results go to show that a two-feet runner 
produces as much flour as a four-feet flat millstone, the power 
required being a minimum. If the stones run empty, no contact 
can take place, therefore there is no firing, nor does a variation iu 
the feed or speed cause any difference in the relative position of 
the stones, on account of the firm and steady revolution on the 
curved pivots. The antifrictional qualities of these pivots are 
pretty well elucidated by the fact of the very minute consumption 
of oil upon them. 

The " Ring Millstone," invented by 
Mr. Mullin of Gilford, Ireland, is pro- 
pi >sed as the means of securing four 
special advantages — economy in ma- 
nufacture, simplicity and effective ven- 
tilation, increased production of meal, 
and a saving of labour in repairs. Fig. 
4 is a vertical section of the stone, and 
fig. 5 is a corresponding plan. The 
"eye," a, is made excessively large in 
proportion to the stone's diameter, ex- 
ceeding, indeed, half the latter dimen- 
sion. This increased area admits a 

greater volume of air than is usual, and this air, coining in contact 
with the more rapidly revolving portion of the stone, is passed 



Fi s . 4. 




1GG 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



between the working- surfaces by the action of the centrifugal 
force. Besides, the increased circumferential length of the eye 
admits of the formation of three or four times the ordinary number 
of leading furrows, for the distribution of the air over the grinding 
surfaces, and thus more grain is ground, without any risk of over- 
heating by friction. Finally, by getting rid of the great area of 
superabundant stone at the centre, the operation of dressing is ob- 
viously simplified very considerably. 

Mr. Barnett of Hull has ingeniously enough contrived a per- 
meable millstone, capable of dressing a great portion of the flour 
during the actual grinding process. Fig. 6 is a sketch of this 
stone. As soon as the grinding has commenced, the fine flour 
which is liberated passes over a set of radial wire-gauze openings 

in the lower stone, and the 
Fi s- 6 - coarser particles are thus sepa- 

rated from the finer ones. In 
the upper stone, a series of 
openings are so arranged, and 
furnished with air-boxes, facing 
the direction of the stone's 
revolution, that the external 
air is forced down upon tire 
grinding surfaces, to cool the 
meal, and facilitate the passing 
of the superfine flour through 
the wire-work in a cool state. The inventor alleges that he can 
thus separate a superfine flour from ordinary wheat, from one to 
two-thirds being delivered, ready dressed, into the bag, the rest 
being ready for immediate dressing. 

Fig. 7 illustrates an arrangement by Mr. Hastie of Greenock, 
for the application of a separate steam-engine to each pair of 
stones, just as Mr. Nasmyth now works calico-printing machines, 
each with its own individual small engine. Here, a is the steam 



Fig. 7. 





cylinder, and b the piston-rod, connected by a pair of connecting- 
rods, c, with the crank-shaft, d, which forms the axis of the upper 
millstone, e. The joints that unite the ends of the rods, c, with 
the piston-rod and crank-shrJt are universal. The shaft, d, is 
provided with a fly-wheel,/, which serves to receive an endless 
oelt for driving flour-Jressing machines; and there is also an 



eccentric, g, on the shaft, d, for communicating motion by the rod 
h, to the slide-valve belonging to the steam cylinder, a. The cy 
Under, a, is supported upon legs, bolted to the bed-plate, i; and 
from this plate rises a small standard, j, which carries the bearing 
for the lower end of the shaft, d, and likewise a standard, fr, which 
sustains a guide for the end of the piston-rod. The lower end of 
the shaft, d, is not supported longitudinally by the bearing in the 
standard, j, but only laterally; and there is a hardened steel pivot 
in that lower end, which rests upon a similar plate lodged at the 
bottom of the cell formed in a bearing lever, I. This lever is sus- 
tained at one end by a centre pin or fulcrum in a low standard, m, 
and the other end of the lever is suspended from the frame, n, by 
a long screw-bolt, which, being turned, or a nut fitted upon the 
screw thereof being turned, when required, will raise or lower that 
end of the lever, and thus the upper millstone can be accurately set 
to the intended distance from the lower one. It is on account of 
the vertical movement which is occasionally required to be given to 
the shaft, d, that the connecting-rods, c, are united to that shaft and 
to the piston-rod by universal joints. 

When two pairs of millstones are required to be worked by the 
same engine, this may be effected by causing the piston-rod to pass 
through both ends of the cylinder, a, and connecting it at each end 
with the shaft, d, of the upper millstone, belonging to the pair of 
millstones which are on that side of the steam-engiue ; and in case 
it should be desired at any time to work only one of the upper 
stones, the other may be disconnected by detaching the connecting- 
rods belonging thereto. 

The efficient mingling of cold air with the grain as it passes be- 
tween the grinding surfaces of millstones, is one of the most im- 
portant of the modern improvements in grinding. The operating 
surfaces are thus kept cool, and the production is materially increas- 
ed, whilst the quality of flour is very superior to that produced in 
fne old way. It is this feature which holds a prominent place in a 
recent invention by Mr. J. Currie of Glasgow. 

Fig. 8 of our engravings is a vertical section of one of his 
millstone arrangements, showing how the cooling air is mingled 
with the grain before it passes to the grinding surfaces. For 
this purpose he uses two grain feed-pipes, a, diverging down- 
wards, like a forked branch of a tree, from the narrow bottom 
discharge opening of the hopper, b, the revoking feed-spindle, c, 
being passed up from the main spindle, d, through a joint-hole 
in the fork, into the main feed-pipe, receiving the grain from 
the hopper. After diverging downwards, until they reach the 
upper surface of the fixed stone, e, the two feed-pipes pass 
vertically through a pair of holes made directly through the 
upper stone, and set diametrically, one en each side the eye of 
the stone. An annular portion of the under surface of this stone, 
extending far enough to reach the feed apertures opening through 
it, is bevilled slightly upwards from the outer side of these holes 
towards the eye, so as to leave a narrow space between the two 
stones at this part, for the free entry of the grain and air, and 
precluding the chance of the commencement of the grinding 
action, before the air has fully reached the acting surfaces. The 
eye of the upper fixed stone, between the two feed-pipes, is 
covered over with a metal disc, g, passed over the feed-spindle, ' 
and capable of adjustment at any required height above the eye 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



167 



as a valve. The grinding surface of the lower running stone, H, 
is perfectly flat throughout, and its eye at the grinding level is 
covered over by a metal plate, f, with a central aperture round 

Fig. 8. 




the feed-spindle, g, for the passage through of a portion of the 
air. In this way, part of the air may be discharged at the eye of 
the upper stone, and part down through the eye of the runner 
beneath, whilst the main body of the air goes along with the 
grain, and is discharged with the grained material at the periphery 
of the stones. By this contrivance, the entire surface of both 
stones is kept encircled by a constantly changing air-bath or 
current, for the air, escaping at the eye of the upper stone, is 
directed by the valve disc over its entire surface, whilst that from 
the bottom of the lower eye passes over the whole bottom surface 
of the runner, between it and the bottom base plate, I. This has 
a ventilating effect ; for on the upper edge of the iron casing, j, 
which surrounds the lower running stone, and supports the upper 
fixed stone, is placed an annular disc of wire-cloth, k, covering 
over the annular space left between the periphery of the stones 
and the interior of the casing. This wire-cloth stands a short 
distance above the level of the grinding surfaces, and from its 
periphery a light wooden casing, l, springs upwards, surrounding 
the upper stone, and bevilled inwards at some distance above the 
stone's surface. Thus there is a current of cold air passing from 
the running eye up outside the stone and inside the casing. 
There it meets the heated current from the grinding surfaces at 
right angles ; and breaking this heated current, whatever grained 
material is held in suspension, falls back within the bottom casing, 
whilst the heated air passes off through the wire-cloth, again 
meeting at right angles with a cool current from the upper side of 
the top stone, which, in conjunction with the bevilled top of the 
upper case, still further separates the suspended flour, and aids 
the ventilation. Another modification of stones relates to tho 
combination of three or more separate stones, instead of two, as 
hitherto used. In this plan, which is represented in fig. 9, tho 
central stone, A, is tho runner, the upper and lower ones, B, c, 
being fixed, so that tho grinding is performed both between tho 
under surface of tho upper stone at d, and tho upper surface of 




the central runner, and between the under surface of the latter 
and the upper surface of the bottom fixed stone at e. The grain 
is fed through the 

pipe, f, into the Fig- 9. 

hopper, G, through 
the adjustable feed- 
passage into the pipe, 
h. Hence the supply 
for the upper grind- 
ing surfaces passes 
out by the inclined 
lateral opening, i, into 
the hollow space, j, 
in the upper stone, 
forming the lower 
part of the eye there- 
of. Here it falls on 
to the disc, k, and is 
directed to the grind- 
ing surfaces. The 

supply of grain for the lower or secondary grinding action passes 
out at the bottom of the pipe, h, into the eye of the runner, a, 
and thence proceeds to the grinding surface. The upper stone is 
supported by side brackets, these brackets being carried on the 
lower annular casing, l, bolted down to the floor. The bottom 
stone is sunk in a casing, m, recessed into the floor or platform, 
being steadied late- 
rally by an annular 
piece of metal level 
with the floor, whilst 
it rests on adjusting 
bolts, n, beneath. 
The spindle, driven 
by gearing from be- 
low, rests in an ad- 
justable balanced 
footstep. It is fitted 
to the runner by a 
Ryne, made on the 
"balance" principle. 
The top of the spin- 
dle is spherically 
shaped, as at o, be- 
ing passed through 
the collar disc, r, 
and fitted into a 
spherical recess in 
the under side of tho 
Ryne, q, connected 
to tho stone, a. In 
this way, as tho con- 
nection between tho 
spindle and tho stono 
is entirely formed 1>\ tins ball and socket, no derangement can arist. 
from tho spindle and ninnor getting out of truth. 

Fig. 10 is a vortical section ol' tho "balance Ryne," on :i largo* 




168 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



scale, a is the base plate, and u the lower running stone, driven 
from above by the main spindle, i, which passes down through the 
centre of the adjustable tubes of the feed-hopper, and terminates 
in a convex foot. This foot rests in a concavity in the top of 
the disc piece, d, which has formed upon the centre of its lower 
surface a spherical journal or step piece, resting in a brass carried 
in the top of the adjustable block, e. The bottom of the spindle 
has a transverse piece, J, forged upon it, and arranged to gear 
into slots in a projection standing up from the upper face of the 
disc piece, d, so that the spindle cannot revolve without carrying 
this disc with it. This disc is secured vertically to the upper disc 
of the Ryne by bolts passed up from below, and it is adjustable 
laterally by set screws passed through the vertical arms of the 
Ryne, c, and bearing against the disc's periphery. These vertical 
arms terminate in an annular piece, from which projections pass 
into corresponding internal slots in the lower end of the eye of 
the stone. A large box piece, k, is firmly wedged into the eye 
of the runner from above, covering up the whole of the Ryne ap- 
paratus, and this box piece has an upper collar upon it, through 
which side bolts, l, are passed. These bolts pass as well through 
the feed-cup piece, M, and finally bear upon the spindle which 
passes through the cup piece and into the box. By this arrange- 
ment the full benefit of the universal joint connection is obtained, 
as the bolts admit of exact lateral adjustment, and the stones will 
work accurately, even if they should get out of truth with the 
spindle. The bottom block, e, rests on the top of the screw bolt, 
F, which works in a brass nut, the latter carrying a notched disc, 
g, for turning by the adjusting lever, h. The forked end of 
this lever embraces, and is jointed to, a loose ring by a pin on 
each side, so that the lever may be engaged and disengaged from 
the notches in the disc at pleasure. In this way, as the disc is fast 
to the brass, the attendant, by urging round the lever when 
engaged in one of the notches, can screw up the spindle, and thus 
raise the block, o, as may be required. This movement resem- 
bles that of a ratchet-drill, wherein a few short strokes and a 
succession of engagements with the disc notches, give a consider- 
able power of traverse. The block, e, is capable of being fixed by 
a set screw, passed through the projecting bottom collar of the 
base plate. 

Many of these improvements are now at work, at the patentee's 
extensive and well-arranged " City of Glasgow Grain Mills." 

In this country, Mr. Fairbairn of Manchester, perhaps, takes the 
foremost position as a flour-mill engineer. Mr. Joyce, of the 
Greenock Iron Works, has also produced some excellent work of 
this kind. The Union Corn Mills, Birmingham, and the Bone Mills 
of Mr. Lawes, at Deptford, may be mentioned as working examples 
of the respective performances of these makers. 



RULES AND PRACTICAL DATA. 
WORK PERFORMED BY VARIOUS MACHINES. 

FLOUK MILLS. 

446. As we have stated in the preceding general description of 
the machinery of flour mills, the diameter commonly adopted for 



millstones on the English system is 1-3 m., whilst they are driver 
at a velocity of 115 to 120 revolutions per minute. Such stones. 
in some of the well-managed establishments in and around Paris, 
grind on an average 15 or 16 hectolitres of wheat in 24 hours ; but, 
at the same time, 60, 62, and even 63 per cent, of that first quality 
of flour is obtained, which is so much sought after by the Parisian 
bakers. 

When worked in this manner, we have ascertained that it re- 
quires an effective force of one horse power, equal to 75 kilogram- 
metres, to grind on an average from 20 to 22 kilogrammes of wheat 
per hour, or about four horses power for from 80 to 88 kilo- 
grammes. In this estimate we include the power necessary to 
work, not only the millstones, but also all the accessory apparatus 
of the mill. 

It would appear, then, according to this, that in order to grind 
from 15 to 16 hectolitres in the 24 hours — which corresponds to 50 
or 51 kilogrammes per hour — it requires an effective force of 2± 
horses power, that required for the cleaning and bolting or dress- 
ing processes being included. 

Supposing, then, that we have at our disposal an effective force 
of 15 horses power, we should set it to work six pairs of stones, 
together with the accompanying apparatus and machinery. We 
must observe, however, that in this number we include the pair of 
stones that may happen to be being redressed. As this operation 
is made almost regularly every five or six days, or every week at 
furthest, there is necessarily almost always a pair of stones not 
working, but uncovered and undergoing the redressing operation ; 
an active manager, besides, always arranges that this work may be 
well and quickly done, and as much as possible during the day- 
time. 

In mills where the stones are not screwed down so hard, and 
consequently work further apart — as is the case in the greater part 
of Burgundy and Lyons, and also in other countries — the mills are 
made to grind from 24 to 25 hectolitres of wheat per pair of stones 
per 24 hours, and often even more. The work done is, in these 
cases, much more considerable ; but then it is evidently at the ex- 
pense of the quality of the flour, and almost always more seconds 
than firsts are produced by these mills. 

The power required by each pah- of stones is necessarily greater, 
although it does not increase in proportion to the quantity of flour 
produced. In fact, it has been demonstrated by experiment, that 
under the last-mentioned system, from 25 to 26 kilogrammes of 
wheat can be ground by a force equal to one horse power of 75 
kilogrammetres, whilst under the first system only 20 to 22 kilo- 
grammes are ground. There is, therefore, an actual gain, as far as 
regards this point ; and it may be said, indeed, that with a power 
of four horses, from 100 to 104 kilogrammes of wheat per hour can 
be ground according to the system adopted at Lyons, Dijon, and 
elsewhere, whilst, in the mills in and around Paris, the same power 
serves to grind only from 80 to 88 kilogrammes. 

In the mills intended for war purposes, in which, as we have 
said, a much coarser flour is produced, and the stones consequently 
work further apart, the expenditure of power is even still less, 
proportionately, and the more so that the cleansing and xlressing 
apparatus is extremely limited in its action : thus, the work accom- 
plished may be estimated at from 28 to 30 kilogrammes of wheat 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



169 



ground per horse power per hour. In fact, experimental investi- 
gations have shown, that, with a steam-engine of from 24 to 25 
horses power, working seven pairs of stones of 1*3 m. in diameter, 
17,374 kilog. of wheat could be ground in the 24 hours. This 
corresponds to a power of 3| horses, and 103 - 4 kilog. of wheat 
ground per pair of stones, or to 29-5 kilog. per horse power per 
hour. 

We may, therefore, deduce from the preceding results : — 
First — That with an effective power of one horse (or 75 kilo- 
grammes raised one metre high per second), a mill should grind a 
minimum of 20 kilog. of wheat, and a maximum of 30 kilog. per 
hour. 



Second — That the minimum quantity applies to mills which are 
worked for commercial purposes, and particularly for the Parisian 
consumption, producing the greatest possible quantities of the 
higher qualities of flour. 

Third — That the medium quantity (of from 25 to 26 kilog. per 
hour) is that produced by mills likewise worked for commercial 
purposes, but making a greater quantity of second quality flour, 
such as those at Lyons and other places. 

Fourth — Finally, that the maximum quantity corresponds to the 
produce of those mills which only grind the coarser qualities, and 
in which the cleansing and dressing mediums are very simple. 



TABLE OF THE POWER REQUIRED, THE QUANTITY OF "WHEAT GROUND, AND THE NUMBER OF PAIRS OF STONES, 

WITH THEIR ACCESSORY APPARATUS. 



Effective Force in 


Quantity of Wheat ground in kilogrammes per hour. 


Number of Fairs of Stones. 


Horses 
power. 


k. m. 


Minimum. 


Medium. 


Maximum. 


Minimum. 


Medium. 


Maximum. 


i 


75 


20 


25 


30 


i 






2 


150 


40 


50 


60 


i 






3 


225 


60 


75 


90 


i 






4 


300 


80 


100 


120 


1 to 2 






5 


375 


100 


125 


150" 


2 


1 to 2 


1 to 2 


6 


450 


120 


150 


180 


2 to 3 


2 


1 to 2 


7 


525 


140 


175 


210 


2 to 3 


2 


2 


8 


600 


160 


200 


240 


3 


2 to 3 


2 


9 


675 


180 


225 


270 


3 to 4 


3 


2 to 3 


10 


750 


200 


250 


300 


4 


3 


2 to 3 


12 


900 


240 


300 


360 


4 to 5 


4 


3 


14 


1050 


280 


350 


420 


5 


4 to 5 


4 


16 


1200 


320 


400 


480 


6 


5 


4 to 5 


18 


1350 


360 


450 


540 


6 to 7 


6 


5 


20 


1500 


400 


500 


600 


7 


6 to 7 


5 to 6 


22 


1650 


440 


550 


660 


8 


7 


6 


24 


1800 


480 


600 


720 


9 


8 


• 6 to 7 


26 


1950 


520 


650 


780 


10 


8 to 9 


7 


28 


2100 


560 


700 


840 


11 


9 


8 


30 


2250 


600 


750 


900 


12 


10 


8 to 9 


32 


2400 


640 


800 


960 


12 to 13 


10 to 11 


9 


34 


2550 


680 


850 


1020 


13 


11 


9 to 10 


36 


2700 


720 


900 


1080 


14 


12 


10 


38 


2850 


760 


950 


1140 


15 


12 to 13 


10 to 11 


40 


3000 


800 


1000 


1200 


16 


13 


11 


45 


3375 


900 


1125 


1350 


18 


15 


12 to 13 


50 


3750 


1000 


1250 


1500 


20 


16 to 17 


14 


55 


4125 


1100 


1375 


1650 


22 


18 


15 to 16 


60 


4500 


1200 


1500 


1800 


24 


20 


17 


65 


4875 


1300 


1625 


1950 


26 


21 to 22 


18 to 19 


70 


5250 


1400 


1750 


2100 


28 


23 


20 


75 


5625 


1500 


1875 


2250 


30 


25 


21 to 22 


80 


6000 


1600 


2000 


2400 


32 


26 to 27 




85 


6375 


1700 


2125 


2550 


34 


28 


24 


90 


6750 


1800 


2250 


2600 


36 


30 


25 to 26 


95 


7125 


1900 


2375 


2850 


38 


31 to 32 


27 


100 


7500 


2000 


2500 


3000 


40 


33 


28 to 29 



This table is calculated upon the conclusions preceding it, and 
gives at sight, on the one hand, the quantity of wheat which can 
be ground by a given effective power, and, on the other, the ap- 



proximate number of pairs of stones which may bo erected when it 
is desired to fit. up a mill with a determined power. 

It is easy to see, from this table, that the number of pairs ot 



170 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



stones varies in accordance with the three systems adopted. We 
believe the table will be a sufficient guide for the construction of 
flour mills, whatever may be the description of prime mover employ- 
ed. It must be remarked, that it is most frequently upon such data 
that the number of stones ought to be determined, when an old 
mill is to be replaced by a new one, rather than upon the power 
of the mill which previously existed ; for there is generally no com- 
parison whatever between the work given out by a mill on the old 
system, with a pair of French stones of 1*8 or 21 m. in diameter, 
and that of a mill with modem English stones. In fact, we have 
known it to happen, that in one mill, where there had been two 
pans of old stones of 2 m. in diameter, three or four pairs of small 
stones of 1-3 m. in diameter were erected, whilst, in other mills, six, 
eight, and even ten were worked to advantage. 

These notable differences arise from various causes. Thus it 
will be understood, that if the prime mover, applied to an old mill, 
be badly constructed and badly arranged, it will utilize very little 
of the disposable force, and will, therefore, only give out an 
amount of work much below what it ought to do. Besides, the 
large French stones, with large eyes but ungrooved, can be made 
to grind little or much at pleasure, whilst, on the other hand, 
the flour is generally of a lower quality. We may say, in fact, 
that the quantity of wheat ground by a pair of large stones, in a 
given time, is almost always double that ground by a pair of small 
stones. 

In reference to this subject, there is yet another remark to be 
made, which will not be without importance. In many localities, 
without adopting the English system altogether, there have been 
mills established on a mixed system ; that is to say, that the gear, 
the manner of grinding, and chiefly the hydraulic prime mover, 
have been improved. Such mills give out sufficiently advanta- 
geous results, and, in fact, in some eases, produce more with a 
given force than they have been capable of producing at a later 
period, when they have been replaced by apparatus entirely on 
the English system. This has caused surprise, and the constructor 
has been blamed for obtaining worse results after than before the 
re-erection. 

It must be recollected, that when the details of a French mill are 
improved — that is to say, when a good water-wheel is applied to 
it, and a good system of gearing, but still keeping the large stones, 
and not encumbering them with much accessory apparatus, since it 
is, after all, when taken as a whole, considerably less complicated 
than the English mill which is substituted for it — when worked 
with the same amount of power, it should produce more than the 
latter, although this latter is generally preferred, because the 
machinery is more complete, and better adapted for working in a 
regular and continuous manner. 

We must also remark, that there are millers who prefer stones 
of from 1*4 to 1*5 m. in diameter, and sometimes even of 1*6 m. ; 
but still adopting the English system in the general details — that 
is to say, the stones are grooved and dressed in exactly the same 
manner as those of 1*3 m. in diameter. They are made to pro- 
duce more in a given time than the latter, although they are not 
driven at so rapid a rate, this never exceeding 90 or 100 revolu- 
tions per minute. These larger dimensions may have the advan- 
tage of simplifying the machinery, and diminishing the number of 



stones, on the one hand, and perhaps, on the other, utilizing a 
greater per centage of the whole power of the prime mover. It 
will, in fact, be easily comprehended, that the power of a mill, 
comprising several pairs of stones of 13 m. in diameter, may at 
times be too great for them to work well, whilst it might be tho- 
roughly utilized with stones of from P5 to 1-6 m. in diameter. 
Again, it may happen that the power to be disposed of is not suffi- 
cient to drive two pairs of small stones, whilst it is too much for 
one pair ; or that it is not desirable to go to the expense of gearing 
for a second pair of stones ; whilst, with a single pair of larger 
stones, all the power may be profitably employed, and the stones 
made to work well, with less first cost, and less after expense for 
repairs, and keeping in order. 

We conclude these remarks by a statement of the results de- 
rived from mills, of different epochs : — 

1830. — First Statement of Produce, obtained from an old Steam-Mill, 
belonging to M. Benoit, at St. Denis, now no longer in existence. 

Produced by grinding 100 parts of "Wheat, according to the Ameri- 
can system. 

"Wheat flour,. 1st quality,. . 64 ~) 

flour separated from the oatmeal,. 1st " . . 3i All flour, 

" 2nd " . . 6 [ = IS per 100. 

" 3rd and 4th, " . . 2 J 

Coarse bran 20 Mlog. to the hectolitre, 6^ 

Yine " 34 " " 7 ! ^ arioU3 products, 

Coarse meal, 2S to 30 " 6 [ = 23 

To be re-ground, 45 to 50 " .... 4 J 
Waste and loss, = 2 

General total, 100 kilog. 

1837. — Second Statement of Produce; namely, of 3520 Setiers (42,2-10 
Bushels) of Wheat, weighing 417,452 kilog., obtained from a Mill, 
on the English system, near Paris. 

Flour, 1st and 2nd quality, 300,579 = 72 per 100. 

" 3rd quality, i- 840 ^".* « 

" 4th " 7,586 J 

Siftings 2.S56 = "7 " 

Various products, 88,016 =215 " 

Waste and loss, 16,575 =3 - 5 " 

General total 417,452 kilog. 

1848.— Third Statement of Produce ; namely, of 100 Setierx (1,200 
Bushels) of ~\Yheat, weighing 11,800 kilog. 

Flour, 1st quality, 8,260 = 70 per 100. 

" 2nd " 236 = 2 " 

" 3rd and 4th 472 = 4 " 

Various products, 2,860 = 20 " 

11,328 kilog. 



SAW-MILLS. 

447. Saw-mills may be divided into two distinct categories; 
namely, those in which the saws have a continuous motion, and 
those in which the motion is reciprocatory. 

The first class comprises not only circular saws, but also those 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



171 



which consist of a thin flexible steel-plate, passed round two drums 
or pulleys, like an ordinary pulley-belt. 

The second class comprises straight saws, acting vertically or 
horizontally, or sometimes slightly inclined. 

We shall here give the notes of some experiments upon a sawing- 
machine, having several saw-plates arranged side by side in a frame, 
weighing altogether nearly 400 kilog. 

The power expended by the prime mover was. for -161 sq. m. in 
area, sawn through per minute, in dry oak, 3-7 horses power ; and 
4-5 horses power for an area of -131 sq. m. sawn through per 
minute, in oak that had been cut four years. In these instances, 
four saw-plates were worked at once, which gives for each saw- 
plate, in the first instance, -925 horses power per plate ; and, in the 
second, 1-125 horses power. 

The width of the set of the saw is ordinarily 3 to 4 millimetres 
at the outside. 

A reciprocating saw, making, on an average, 120 strokes per 
minute, with a length of stroke equal to - 6 m., the cranks being 
•3 m. in radius, passes in a minute through a space equal to 

120 x 2 x 6= 144 metres ; 
or, 

2 - 4 m. per second. 

Now, with such a stroke, we can saw through a thickness of 
from 50 to 60 centimetres, and even more. In taking the lower 
of these two dimensions, the work obtained per minute, with an 
advance of 2 millimetres, is 

120 x -002 x 5 = -12 sq. m., 
for the area sawn through, measured upon one side only. 

This, per hour, is 

•12 x 60 = 7-8 sq. m. 

WORK GOT THROUGH, WITH A LONG SAW, BY TWO MEN. 

448. Two men, giving on an average 50 strokes per minute, can 
go on, without stopping, for 3 or 4 minutes. Allowing that they 
stop every 30 seconds, or half minute, the stroke of then - saw bein°- 
•975 m., the entire length of the plate, 1*3 m., they will saw through 
a length of -92 m. in 7 minutes. This gives for the area sawn 
through — 

•92 x -315= -2898 sq. m. ; 
or, per minute, 

•2898 -S- 7 = -0414 sq. in. 

Thus, the work of these two men is very nearly equal to that 
of one of the saw-plates in the sawing-machine first described, which 
requires a force equal to one horse power. This difference may 
easily be accounted for, when it is recollected that, in the sawing. 
machine, a considerable part of the motive power is expended in 
overcoming the friction of the various moveable parts, through 
which the motion is communicated to the saw-frame ; whilst, in 
manual sawing, the power is applied directly to the saw, and the 
frame is always a very light afl'air, especially as compared with that 
in the machine. 

In a manually-worked saw, such as we have alluded to, tho 
teeth are -013 m. apart, so that 75 teeth come into action (lining 
the stroke of -975 m. The depth of these teeth is -0065 m. ; that 
is to say, half their pitch. They arc very slightly bent to each 



side, and the workmen chamfer off their inner edges, alternately on 
one side and on the other. 

As the saw only acts during its descent, it may be deduced, from 
the preceding statements, that its mean advance is 
■92 nt 4-7= -1314 m. per I'; 
and per stroke of the saw, 

•1314 -4- 50 = -00263 m. ; 
that is to say, a little above 2\ millimetres. This advance is very 
nearly the same as that ordinarily given to a machine-saw, when 
sawing oak. 

VENEER-SAWING MACHINES. 

For veneer saws, which generally work upon hard wood, and 
which, moreover, produce sheets of peculiar thinness, and perfectly 
equal and regular throughout, it is obviously impossible to advance 
tlirough the wood at such a rate as is customary in cutting deal 
bulks into boards. 

The velocity of these saws is, perhaps, greater than for any other 
purpose. It is not less, in fact, than 280 strokes per minute, and 
often reaches even 300 strokes, which is more than double the 
ordinary velocity formerly adopted. 

If the saw only advances through mahogany at the rate of \ 
millimetre for each revolution, the length sawn through per minute 
will be 

300 x -0005 = -15 m.; 
and per hour, 

■15 x 60 =9 metres. 

If the width of the wood be 40 centimetres, the area sawn 
through per hour will be 

9 x -4 = 3-6 square metres; 
and per day's work, of 12 hours, allowing 2 hours for grinding the 
tools, fixing the wood, arranging the saw, lubricating, &c, the total 
work done will be 

3-6 x 10 = 36 sq. m., sawn through. 

We may remark, that the actual price paid to saw-mill owners 
for sawing mahogany is, at Paris, generally 28 fr. per 100 kilog., 
20 sheets of veneer to the inch, or 27 millimetres, of width being 
given. 

It is scarcely twenty years since the time that 10 francs per kilog., 
or 1,000 francs per 100 kilog., was paid for this description of saw- 
ing ; and it was very rarely that so many sheets of veneer were got 
out of the same thickness of wood. This immense difference will 
give some idea of the effects of competition, and the improvements 
coutinually made in tho construction of machinery. 

CIRCULAR SAWS. 

450. Circular saws are, without question, the simplest, and 
capable of tho greatest number of applications in the industrial 
arts. They are employed of all dimensions, From those of 2 or 3 
centimetres in diameter, to those of 1 metre, and even more. The 
smallest and weakest are generally used for ending very minute 
articles, in bone, horn, or ivory- In the machines for cutting tho 
flat sides of wheel-teeth, we find circular saws employed, of from 
6 or 8 centimetres, up to l i or i<> centimetres in diameter, accord* 
iiiLr to the power of the machine, and the strougth if .!.• teeth to 



172 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



be cut. In carpentry, cabinet-making, and coach-making, circular 
saws are employed of from -12 m. to "6 m. in diameter. In engi- 
neers' workshops, circular saws may be considered indispensable, 
on account of the rapidity of their action, and also on account of 
the perfection of their work. The saws used in these workshops 
are generally from -2 to *4 m. in diameter, and they revolve at a 
rate not less than 400 revolutions per minute, and in some cases 
600, and even more. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH A CIRCULAR SAW, *7 M. IN DIAMETER. 

First Trial. — Kind of wood sawn : oak, one year after being 
cut, -222 m. in depth : — 



Number of revolutions of the saw per 1', 266 

Area sawn per minute, ♦ *18 sq. m. 

Second Trial. — Kind of wood sawn : dry deal, in planks, -27 m. 
wide, by -027 m. thick : — 

Number of revolutions of the saw per ]' 244 

Area sawn in 1', -75 sq. m. 

These results show that, for small pieces of wood, one circular 
saw does as much work as four vertical rectilinear saws in the 
same time, and with the same motive power. 

It must be remarked, that the area sawn, as noted above, is the 
product of the depth of the piece by the length sawn, and not the 
sum of the two faces separated by the saw, as is customary in 
calculating wood. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



EXAMPLES OF FINISHED DRAWINGS OF MACHINERY. 



BALANCE WATER METER. 



EXAMPLE PLATE A. 



In approaching the completion of our labours for the instruc- 
tion of the Practical Draughtsman in Industrial Design, w T e now 
lay before him our promised descriptive details of the finished 
example plates which have been developed for his guidance. 
Our Plate A, of this series, is given as a specimen of careful and 
accurate line-drawing on the part of the draughtsman who com- 
mitted the design to paper, and fidelity on the part of the 
engraver who retransferred the delineation to the copperplate, 
and worked up the a effects" on the rounds, and the general lights 
and shades. 

The little instrument here selected as the means of conveying 
a lesson on " finish," is the full size of a fluid meter, capable of 
measuring something more than 800 gallons of water, or as much 
as is necessary for the condenser of a six horse steam-engine, per 
hour. It is the invention of Mr. Charles William Siemens of 
Birmingham, a brother of Mr. E. W. Siemens of Berlin, the 
inventor of the " Prussian State Telegraph," both of which gen- 
tlemen must be well known to the readers of these pages, from 
their many contributions to physical science and the constructive 
arts. 

The "balance meter" is of the rotatory kind, and has been 
contrived with the view of securing, within the compass of 
extremely simple details, the power of registering the quantity of 
water flowing through a pipe, with equal accuracy at all pressures, 
and without in any way impeding the continuous flow from the 
supplying head. Fig. 1 is a longitudinal elevation of the meter, 
a portion of the indicating dial being broken away to show the 
internal indicating details. Fig. 2 is a corresponding longitudinal 
section of the meter, exliibiting both the rotatory measuring appa- 
ratus, and the index gearing. The whole of the apparatus is 
contained within the cylindrical cast-iron shell, a, having plain 



end flanges, b, for bolting it in the line of the- water supply-pipe, 
and a short cylindrical box, c, screwed on the upper side to hold 
the index gearing. This shell is cast hollow and open through- 
out, but with three projecting annular ribs for boring out as a seat 
for a drawn brass lining tube, d, inserted for the purpose of 
securing a perfectly uniform area throughout the waterway ; and 
within this waterway are placed two hollow metal drums, e, sup- 
ported on longitudinal spindles, f, set in the axial line of the 
shell. These spindles are carried at their outer ends in bearings, 
g, in the centres of the fixed cone pieces, h, one of which is in 
section, and the opposite or inner spindle bearings are in a single 
central bracket opposite the rib, i, of the shell. Each longitu- 
dinal half, from the centre line, is precisely the same in construc- 
tion. The cones, h, have each projecting spindle pieces, passing 
to near each end of the shell, where they are steadied concentri- 
cally with the shell's axis, by cross bars, J, in shallow ring pieces 
recessed into each end of the shell ; whilst the cones themselves 
are steadied by four thin radial blades, k, fitting to the brass 
lining. The inner surfaces of these cones are concave, and the 
slightly convex faces of the drums, E, project a little way into 
these concavities, as shown on the right side of the figure. The 
drums, e, are the prime motive details, each having a set of screw 
blades, or twisted vanes, l, set in reverse directions, or right and 
left-handed. Motion is conveyed from the drum spindles by 
pinions, m, one on the inner end of each spindle. Each pinion 
gears into two opposite crown wheels, n, so that the two drums 
are compelled to revolve at the same rate In opposite directions. 
The lower crown wheel is simply carried on a short stud-shaft, 
running in bearings in the centre bracket, being merely used to 
connect the two pinions on the lower side; whilst the upper 
wheel is fast on the lower end of a prolonged shaft, supported 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



173 



in the same bracket, and passed through a hole in the side of the 
shell, to give motion to the counter above. The special object of 
this application of the second crown wheel, is the neutralizing the 
lateral pressure upon the drum bearings, in the transmission of 
motion from one drum to the other ; and to reduce the working 
friction to the highest degree of refinement, the total weight of 
each drum is calculated to be just equal to that of its bulk of the 
fluid surrounding it. The water enters the meter, as indicated by 
the duplex spreading arrow, passing through a coarse grating, p, 
intended to retain pieces of wood and bulky matters, but permitting 
the water, with its ordinary impurities, to pass through. After 
passing this grating, the fluid is collected towards the axis of the 
shell, by the first internal conical incline, Q, of a duplex cone piece 
inserted within the shell, and the flow is then directed outwards 
by the second reverse cone, r, and spread uniformly over the 
quick external cone of the pieces, h. The object of this direction 
of the fluid is to prevent partial currents, which would otherwise 
disturb the motion of the working drum ; and as water, in passing 
through pipes, sometimes acquires a rotatory motion, the conical 
block, h, is armed with the radiating blades, k, to direct the fluid 
in a line parallel with the axis, prior to its reaching the drums 
beyond. 

The current, thus uniformly spread and directed, now meets the 
right-handed screw blades of the first drum, e, which is thus caused 
to revolve, the water at the same time acquiring a certain deflection, 
in consequen«e partially from the resistance of the drum to rota- 
tion, and partially from the friction of the fluid against the surface 
of the revolving drum. 

The amount of this deflection or " slip " of the water, varies 
with the velocity of the current, and would, of course, affect the 
accuracy of the measurement, were it not for the correcting influ- 
ence of the second or left screw-bladed drum. The blades on this 
drum are of precisely the same pitch as those on the first ; and as 
they revolve, they meet the water at an angle so much greater than 
occurs at the first drum, as is due to this angular deflection. 
Hence the water tends to drive the second drum faster than the 
first, and the fluid suffers twice that amount of deflection in the 
reverse direction. Hence the combination of the two drums pro- 
duces a powerful water-pressure engine, upon which the slight fric- 
tion of the apparatus exercises no appreciable retarding effect. 
Moreover, the friction of the water on the drum surface increases 
in the ratio of its velocity, and the result is, that the combined 
drums move, under all circumstances, in the exact ratio of the cur- 
rent. The outer edges of the screw blades do not work in absolute 
contact with the internal surface of the fixed shell, a, but no water 
can slip through this way without impinging on the vanes, in con- 
sequence of a alight contraction of the shell between the two drums. 
After passing both drums, the water is again directed as in the first 
instance, and passes off to the service-pipe at the opposite end of 
the shell. 

The counter or indicating apparatus possesses somo peculiar 
features, as regards simplicity of details, and tho dispensing with 
a stuffing-box for tho commui.^ating shaft, o, of the drums. It 
is entirely contained in tho cylindrical brass case, n, in the top of 
which a strong plate-glass cover, s, is screwed in from the under 
side. A strong brass plate, t, divides the case from the meter, 



and has a central hole for the passage through of the vertical spin- 
dle, o. A worm, or endless screw, u, upon this spindle, gives 
motion to the wheel, v, the horizontal spindle of which has a worm, 
w, cut upon it, and gearing with a horizontal wheel, x. The 
spindle of this latter wheel carries a broad pinion, T, which drives 
both the horizontal spur-wheels, z, the first of which has 101, and 
the second 100 teeth. 

The wheel with 101 teeth works loose upon its spindle, but 
carries round with it a dial-plate, a, graduated on its circumference 
to 100 parts. The lower wheel of 100 teeth is fixed upon the 
same spindle as the first, and carries an index hand, which works 
round above the dial, and points to the divisions thereon ; and a 
fixed hand, b, points as well to the same graduations. The train 
of worm-wheels is so proportioned, that exactly 10 gallons of water 
must pass through the meter, in order to move the dial-plate under 
the fixed hand through one division. One entire revolution of the 
dial, consequently, indicates the passage of 1,000 gallons of water, 
for which the moving differential hand passes through only a 
single division on its dial. An entire revolution of the latter, 
therefore, signifies the passage of 100,000 gallons. The reading 
of such a dial is extremely simple. If we suppose the fixed hand 
to point to 47, and the hand on the dial to 89, this will show that 
89,470 gallons have passed. 

The whole chamber of the counter is filled with purified mineral 
naphtha, or other non-corrosive liquid, which communicates with 
the impure liquid passing through the meter, only through the 
medium of the capillary space round the upright spindle, o, and 
does not intermingle with it, although both liquids are under the 
same pressure. 

The actual measurements by this meter have been found to 
agree so perfectly with the calculations, in which the frictional 
surfaces against the water are taken into account, that Sir. Siemens 
considers any means of adjustment to be unnecessary. Much, 
however, depends upon the formation of perfect screw vanes upon 
the drum, to insure uniform results ; but all difficulty on this head 
has been very successfully removed, by casting the drums in metal 
moulds, using a peculiar composition, which does not shrink in 
cooling, and runs very fine. 

The only parts of this meter where wear and tear is to be ex- 
pected, are the pivots of the rotatory drums, and these are made 
of hard steel, and abut against agate plates ; but considering that 
all weight is taken off the bearings, and that the water simply glides 
over the drum surfaces, these pivots may reasonably be expected 
to run for years without requiring attention. 

An important practical advantage of this form of meter, is its 
compact form, and the facility which it offers for adjustment in a 
line of pipes below street pavement, or at any required elevation 
or direction. The internal working parts are quite self-contained, 
and inaccessible without unsoldering the ends, so that they maybe 
intrusted to the care of ordinary workmen. 

In addition to the employment of the meter for water-works 
purposes, it may he usefully applied for registering the water sup- 
plied to steam-boilers, in order to ascertain the actual evaporation 
going on, so as to afford a correct estimate of the value of the fuel 
on the one hand, and the engine and boiler on the other. 



174 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



ENGINEER'S SHAPING MACHINE. 
EXAMPLE PLATE 1. 

Our second example plate is in a more ambitious style of illus- 
trative finish, and, as a work of higher effort, it forms a most 
appropriate subject for the advanced stage of our instructions. 
It goes further than Plate A, in as far as, in addition to its value 
as a drawing worth copying, it presents some most important 
features of symmetry in its abstract design, and carries up the 
mechanical disciple into an elevated range of workmanlike con- 
trivance, and the perfection of the minutest details. The credit 
of so good a design belongs to Mr. G. P. Renshaw, C.E., of Not- 
tingham. 

When Watt was laying the foundation of our present magnifi- 
cent mechanical achievements, he was met at every turn by prac- 
tical difficulties, in the want of constructive tools for working out 
his ideas ; and many of his great conceptions were doomed, for 
this reason, to remain mere suggestive designs. • For the same 
reason, numberless works, which the growth of mechanical con- 
trivances has turned into every-day operations, were treated and 
put down as simple impossibilities, in the days when long screws 
were made by the crude process of wrapping a wire round a man- 
drel, and compressing it between elastic dies. But things are now 
very different with us. Even our farm operations have begun to 
feel the benefits of machinery ; and, as a necessary consequence, 
we now find establishments for making and repairing steam-engines 
and other intricate mechanism in retired country villages. This 
substitution of machine tools for hand labour, whilst it has intro- 
duced great accuracy of workmanship, has been the great cause of 
that cheapness of construction which, coupled with the application 
of new and better-suited materials, has made us the eminent manu- 
facturers we are. 

The "finish" of machinery has also latterly met with increased 
attention, involving, in many respects, a judicious lightness of de- 
tails, and conducing to attentive management ; for the attendant 
naturally cares more for an elegant machine or steam-engine than 
for one of ruder construction, and he therefore feels his pride far 
deeper involved in its performances. 

Of the long list of machine tools now in existence, the lathe is 
by far the most ancient, and it is yet the most important — whether 
we regard it in reference to the extent and variety of its applica- 
tions, or the intrinsic beauty of its action. But such a tool would 
be very far from meeting the requirements of the modern engineer, 
who has, therefore, gradually accumulated separate machines for 
planing, slotting, shaping, fluting, nut and wheel cutting and boring 
machines, with many other specially adapted tools. Each of these 
is limited in its power, and is restricted to a particular class of 
work — so that the engineer is compelled to pass his work through 
many separate tools, before he can complete a single piece of 
combined mechanism. This system of working is productive of 
many evils, as the loss of time in transferring and refixing heavy 
details, and the increase in the chances of error due to repeated 
readjustment. And in many branches of manufacture, more 
especially in light work, where good tools would be highly advan- 
tageous for occasional use, the expense of the several kinds dis- 



courages their adoption. We are, therefore, driven to look for a 
constructive machine of simple construction, which shall in itself 
unite the functions and powers of the existing detached tools. 
Professor Willis, in his late Exhibition Lecture at the Society of 
Arts, has, indeed, generally alluded to this, in speaking of the want 
of " machines much more comprehensive, and yet simple in form, 
by means of which the construction of machinery in general will 
attain to greater perfection, and machine tools be introduced into 
workshops of a smaller character than at present, in the same man- 
ner as the lathe." It is precisely this that Mr. Renshaw has endea- 
voured to carry out in his two chief modifications of, or foundations 
upon, the common lathe and slotting machine. 

The essential features of the several plans, arranged by Mr. 
Renshaw, consist in the combination of the ordinary circular-cut- 
ting motions and arrangements of the lathe, with the rectilinear 
action of the planing or shaping machine, or their derivatives. 
The composite principle may be applied to most of the machine 
tools used in the different branches of useful and ornamental manu- 
factures, so as to open out a new field in the arrangement of con- 
structive machinery. Thus, in the case of the lathe, for example, 
it is applicable not only to the execution of various kinds of plain 
work, but also to the beautiful, though subservient, branch of com- 
plex or geometrical turning. For instance, if the sliding bar carry- 
ing the slide-rest be worked by an adjustable crank-pin, working in 
a slot in the end of the bar, or by changeable cams, the revolutions 
of the crank being proportioned to those of the lathe mandrel by 
the interposition of the ordinary change-wheels of the lathe, most 
of the varieties of work hitherto -produced only by complicated and 
isolated kinds of lathes may be executed — as eccentric, elliptical, 
swash, rose, cycloidal, and others ; the tools, cutters, or drills being 
applied either to edges or surfaces, or angularly, by the adjustment 
for the fast headstock, while, to vary the pattern, it is simply ne- 
cessary to alter the proportions of the wheels. 

Comprehensiveness is a prominent feature in this invention; 
some of the individual parts, like the machines themselves, serving 
for several uses, and thus favouring simplicity ; so that a lathe, 
embracing the above functions, for instance, may still possess the 
steadiness and convenience necessary for the ordinary plain work 
of the amateur. The engineer and mechanist do not require these 
ornamental curves, but each may introduce the system of change- 
wheels in conjunction with the composite lathe, or cutting tools for 
various uses, besides the ordinary ones of sliding, screw-cutting, 
and boring, as for finishing cams, snails, spirals, and volutes of 
various kinds, for barrelling and tapering work, whether circular 
or rectilinear, and for planing dovetails, V's, and other angular 
work. 

To explain this, let fig. 1 represent the principal gearing of a 
composite lathe, in which a represents the main driving-shaft, 
actuating the mandrel, b, of the lathe by means of a pinion, c, 
which can be slid out of gear by a clutch ; d, back gearing for 
slow speed, as usual; e, screw-wheel and tangent-screw, with 
intermittent ratchet-motion feeding in either direction ; g, guide- 
screw; h, grooved shaft for actuating the transverse slide of 
the slide-rest by intermediate gearing; i, the same for moving 
the vertical slide ; k, reversing-screw, corresponding to the pitch 
of the guide-screw ; l, grooved shaft, in connection with the dif 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



1T5 



ferential or barrelling motion, which is attached to the vertical 
slide, and consists of a segmental screw-wheel, embracing a mo- 
tion of about 60°, gearing with a tangent-screw on the shaft, l. The 



segment has a radial slot, in which an adjustable crank-pin is fixed, 
the crank-pin being attached to the bearings of the screw for 
moving the vertical slide, by means of a connecting-rod — thn 




Fig. 2. 



bearings of the screw, which slide in dovetails, and consequently 
the vertical stide, being thus affected by the eccentricity of the 
crank-pin. The shafts, a, h, and i, and screws, g and k, are con- 
nected by a system of wheels, the arrangement of which is clearly 
shown in the end view, fig. 2 ; but g, h, i, and k, may be discon- 
nected from their respective wheels at pleasure by clutches or 
frictional nuts, a, g, h, i, and l, also project at the end to the 

right hand of fig. 1, so as to carry 
change-wheels when necessary, 
and h and i have intermittent 
ratchet-feeding movements at the 
opposite end, similar to that at E, 
for working the tangent-screw. 
All these are worked by the re- 
versing bar in connection with 
the screw, k. An ordinary re- 
versing movement, m, is interposed 
between the guide-screw, e, and 
its driving-wheel, for reversing 
the motion in sliding and scrovv- 
cutting. When the lathe is used 
for surfacing, this reversing motion 
is better applied on the driving-shaft, a. Hand adjustments, not 
shown in the figure, are applied to the boxes of tho guido-scrow, g, 
and of the screws of the vertical and transverse slides of the slido- 
rest. A composite latho, thus geared, may bo applied to all tho 
ordinary descriptions of work. For sliding, boring, and scrow- 
cutting, the mandrel is worked by tho pinion, c, whilst change- 
wheels connect a with g. Tho height of tho tool for foirning is 
conveniently adjusted by the vortical slido of the slide-rest. Sup- 




pose it is desired to stop the lathe at any particular point when 
the attendant is absent, the screw, k, is put in gear by its clutch, 
and by means of a detent stop-movement, it stops the lathe at 
the precise point, by throwing the belt off the fast pulley on the 
end of a, which travels with considerable rapidity. If it be 
required to turn a long cone of greater taper than can conve- 
niently be done by traversing the following head-stock, the cut- 
ting-tool is set over the work by raising the vertical slide by its 
hand adjustment, whilst g and i are also connected by change- 
wheels, so that the slide rises or falls with the cut. If a con- 
necting-rod is to be barrelled, the crank-pin of the differential 
apparatus is adjusted for eccentricity to suit the rise of the sweep, 
and l is connected with g by the change-wheels, to spread the arc- 
over the required length. The barrelling may be used in conjunc- 
tion with the taper adjustments, as will be evident to tho practical 
mechanic. The same parts apply equally to rectilinear cutting, 
whether parallel or taper, in all directions of the cube, and for 
barrelling in a vertical plane, tho pinion, c, being disconnected 
with the mandrel, and tho feed being applied by the intermittent 
ratchet motions. For cutting tho hollows of connecting-rods, 
&c, an intermittent revolving motion is given to tho tool by a 
tangent-screw movement as usual, but, in addition, applying to 
cranks and levers held on tho face-chuck; or, instead of the hitter 
movement, tho work may bo set eccentrically, the hollows being 
then worked by tho tangent-serow movement in connection with 
the mandrel. 

Edge-cams, snails, volutes, of spiral curvature, with any num- 
ber of rises, or compounds of circular and spiral arcs, of which 
tig. 3 gives examples, may be accurately shaped or planed on tho 
edges, by connecting tho tangent-serow with tho transverse slido 



HG 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



of the slide-rest, during the reciprocating action of the cutting 
tool, by means of change-wheels. To do this in the present tool, 
the ratchet-feed movements of e and i are put in gear, i being 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 





prevented from moving the vertical slide by sliding the pinion, n, 
out of gear by means of an eccentric, whilst i and h are connected 
by change- wheels. In the same way, face-cams and other forms 
may be shaped by varying the connections. 

Angular and diagonal work in any position may also be worked 
in this lathe without tilting the tool, by means of the same set of 
change-wheels. To explain this, we may observe that any angle, 
such as b a c, fig. 4, may be produced, by setting one of the slides 
to move through the space, b c, or sine of the angle, whilst the 



Fig. 5. 



Fig. 6. 





other slide traverses the cosine, a b. To apply this practically, 
any two of the slides, actuated by g, h, and i, are connected by 
the proportionate wheels, whilst the third gives the cutting mo- 



tion in the remaining direction of the cube. To reverse the 
angle, a subsidiary wheel is introduced into the pair of change- 
wheels. 

In many cases a crank 
movement is convenient, 
in addition to the guide- 
screw planing move- 
ment, to work short 
strokes with rapidity ; 
while the guide-screw 
serves for longer ranges, 
and also to adjust the 
slide-rest. The crank 
disc is then driven by a 
bevil pinion on the shaft, 
a, the connecting-rod 
being attached to one 
of the bearings of the 
guide-screw, which is 
made to slide similarly 
to the barrelling move- 
ment. 

Fig. 5 represents a composite lathe, or shaping machine, con- 
structed on the model of the ordinary planing machine, and 
designed for accurately finishing the 
pieces forming the framings of marine 
and other engines at one setting, but also 
applicable to a variety of other work, as 
it combines the powers of the lathe with 
the ordinary drilling, boring, planing, 
slotting, and shaping machines. The 
work is placed or traversed between the 
upright standards, a a, as in the ordinary 
planing machine, whilst a vertical cutting 
action may be given to the slide-rest and 
head-stock, carrying the lathe mandrel, 
by two connecting-rods, b b, actuated by 
crank discs beneath the bed, and balanced, 
if necessary. The connecting-rods are 
adjustable for length by means of a cross 
shaft, c, actuating a screw-wheel and 
screw in each; d is the tangent-screw 
motion, as usual, and e is a slide to re- 
gulate the eccentricity of the tool during 
turning and planing hollows, which may 
be automatically fed, when requisite, by 
an eccentric, not shown in the figure. A 
screw, f, gives the cross motion, and 
another at the back of the slide, e, which 
it actuates, adjusts the mandrel in a ver- 
tical plane. By the diagonal principle 
we described, the octagonal recesses, or 
seats, for plummer-block brasses, and 
other angular work, may be executed with precision. 

Fig. 6 represents a convenient form of bed. The bed-chuck 
applies to the side, as used for holding plummer-blocks whilst 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



177 



their soles are planed. A second chuck (dotted) may be super- 
posed for fixing work vertically ; and a slide may be added to draw 
up the work, which may then project between the bearers of the 
bed. For long works, a bed-chuck is used at each end- Levers, 
also, may be passed between the bed, by means of a diametric slide 
on the face-chuck, when requisite. 

We now come to Plate U itself in detail. That plate repre- 
sents a side elevation of a composite slotting and shaping ma- 
chine, with self-acting gearing, as adapted for the entire finishing 
of large cranks, levers, wheels, and other work, ordinarily depend- 
ent upon the efforts of several tools. The main frame consists 
of a large and elegant column, with an open rectangular base, and 
bottom flange for bolting down to the masonry. The upper por- 
tion has cast upon it, on one side, a pilaster bracket piece, with 
two horizontal projecting arms, to carry the vertical cutting slide, 
a ; and on the other, a pillar bracket to support one end of the 
main crank disc shaft ; on the front side of the rectangular base 
is bolted a double-armed bracket, to carry the vertical spindle of 
the cutting face-chuck, like the mandril and face-plate of a large 
lathe, as set on end. The cutting slide, a, like that of a common 
slotting machine, is fitted to traverse in dovetail faces on the 
overhead bracket arms, being actuated by the revolution of the 
pin in the disc, b. At c are two pairs of bevil pinions, connected 
to work simultaneously by an intermediate vertical shaft, d, the 
two vertical pinions being each on the projecting end of a hori- 
zontal screw spindle, governing the traverse motions of a pair of 
horizontal dovetailed slides, on which the vertical slide faces of 
the slotting bar, a, are carried. This is for adjusting the eccen- 
tricity of the tool in turning. Viewed from the front, the fram- 
ing of these slides has the form, I, of which the vertical portion 
and the two arms to the left are covered by the moving details, 
the latter being completely thrust in when the cutting tool of the 
slide, a, exactly coincides with the centre of the revolving work 
on the face-chuck, as also with the crank disc, b. At E is an- 
other shaft for giving a continuous feeding motion to the trans- 
verse slides, by the intervention of a worm and tangent-screw, or 
worm-wheel. This corresponds to the traverse or surfacing 
movement in the lathe. A hand-wheel, f, is fitted on the pro- 
longed end of the shaft, D, for manual adjustment when the worm- 
wheel gear is disconnected by slackening the screw, g, the bear- 
ing, h, at the other end of the spindle being constructed with a 
joint to allow of this disengagement. Another shaft, i, carries a 
spur pinion to actuate the rack, j, on the cutting slide, this 
pinion being capable of traversing on the shaft by means of a 
groove and feather, along with the slides of the cutting bar. In 
this way a continuous vertical feed motion, for turning or boring, 
is secured, the shaft, i, being connected with the shaft, K, by a 
worm and wheel ; the hand-wheel, l, on the bottom end of a ver- 
tical shaft, connected at its upper end to the shaft, k, by a pair of 
bevil pinions, is the hand adjustment. This motion serves also 
to adjust the cutting bar, previous to tightening the nut on the 
stud bolt in front, for the reciprocating action. During the 
working of the reciprocating cutter slide, however, this adjusting 
gear is disengaged, and is kept disengaged by an eccentric and 
slide actuated by the hand-wheel, n, which moves the entire 
adjustment in one mass. At the back of the cutter slide, near 



the upper end, is a nut, o, whereby the crank disc connecting-rod 
may be detached when wide lateral ranges of the slide are wanted 
in turning. The general details of the driving gear for the turn- 
ing and planing actions, are fully delineated in the plate ; but it 
may be explained, that at p is a hand-lever, working over a semi- 
circular arc, suitably notched and contrived to snift the bearing, 
Q, of the horizontal shaft, r, by an eccentric, so as to throw 
either of the opposed or antagonistic bevil wheels on this shaft into 
gear with its corresponding bevil wheel. This movement enables 
the workman to connect either the circular action of the face- 
chuck, through the large bevil wheel beneath it, or the rectilinear 
action of the cutting slide, by means of the vertical shaft passing 
up the centre of the main column, and geared to the horizontal 
crank disc shaft above, by a bevil wheel and pinion, or, by setting 
this adjustment at an intermediate position, both may be disen- 
gaged. At s is a foot-break lever to stop the revolution of the 
work when heavy masses are under operation, a friction strap 
from this lever being passed over a pulley on the shaft, ft, for this 
purpose. 

At t is a cone pulley, working in connection with the cone pul- 
leys on the two upper or continuous feeding shafts, for the circular 
cutting action, the respective pulleys being set to coincide verti- 
cally when connected. The face-chuck can be fixed during the 
reciprocating action of the cutting slide, by the clamp, v. This 
clamping movement consists of a worm, with a square spindle for 
shipping on a handle, driving a worm-wheel on the end of a spin- 
dle, connected interiorly with a segmental wedge, the sides of 
which are portions of a right and left screw-thread respectively. 
The upper part of this segmental piece is flattened, to permit the 
free revolution of the face-chuck when driven by the screw gear- 
ing, as indicated by the large worm-wheel, in gear with a worm 
fast on the spindle of the main front hand-wheel. Near the base 
of the tool is a hand-wheel, v, for the angular adjustment of the 
mandril frame or headstock for taper work. For this purpose the 
headstock is attached to the main frame by a central tenon and 
circular dovetails, which afford a support during the slackening of 
the holding bolts. 

An eccentric chuck, having two slides at right angles to each 
other, and an upper worm-wheel adjustment, is fitted on the face- 
chuck mandril. The lower slide, for giving the intermittent feed 
in shaping the rectilinear sides, w, of a crank, has a double-acting 
ratchet-wheel, temporarily connected by a rod with the correspond- 
ing feeding disc of the large worm-wheel on the face chuck, when 
the latter is fixed at u. The intermittent feed is primarily derived 
from the edge-groove cam on the crank disc, b. This groove works 
the upper stud-pin of a bell-crank lever, set on a stud centre in the 
side of the main frame, and from tho lower horizontal arm of this 
lever a rod descends to (ho worm-wheel mechanism of the lace- 
chuck. 

Tho upper side of tho eccentric chuck is limited to tho ac- 
tual adjustment of tho work, and, by moans of the two slides 
conjointly, adjustments may be made for Bhaping the bosses of 
the cranks, as well as tho hollows at x. Tho obliquity oi' 
the straight sides, w, of the crank is adjusted by tho upper 
screw-wheel, which need only bo of a diameter equal to tho 
length of tho crank ; or, instead of this plan, the sides, \v. may 



178 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



be worked out differentially by duly proportioning the feeds to 
suit. 

In cutting out a crank on this tool, the wrought-iron mass is first 
faced. The bosses are then bored out either by an ordinary boring 
bar fitted into the tool, or by means of the turning tool. After 
the work has been adjusted as to centre on the truly set face- 
chuck, it is clamped down, and a bolt, having a T-headed nut enter- 
ing a groove in the chuck, is then passed through the bore of each 
boss, and the external clamps being removed, the remaining turning 
and shaping processes are gone through. The work requires no 
further shifting or disturbance after being onee properly adjusted 
for position, as the slides of the eccentric chuck, which are gradu- 
ated, give the true centres. 

This shaping machine is more peculiarly fitted for executing very 
heavy work than the lathe, supported by the mandril only, because 
the plan of revolution is horizontal, and hence friction is reduced 
whilst the chucking is facilitated. And when the work has a con- 
siderable overhang, as in the case of a crank, its revolution in a 
vertical plane, as on a lathe, entails some loss of power and liability 
to vibration. This, of course, applies only to heavy work, as pieces 
of moderate size, though with a preponderating side, may be readily 
worked with accuracy in the lathe by means of counterweights 
attached to the back of the chuck. Exact balance is attainable by 
an adjustment of the leverage. 

Mr. Renshaw has since made a tool of simpler appearance, but 
of still greater workshop qualifications, being intended for slotting 
and shaping heavy work of considerable length, and serving, besides, 
as a complete vertical lathe for boring and turning large wheels, 
the outsides of cylinders, and other articles, as well as the self-act- 
ing shaping out of curved surfaces, which cannot be so turned in 
the common lathe. 

The main frame is, in this instance, a plain stout column, with 
suitable brackets for the overhead gear cast on it. The crank 
disc shaft is driven by eccentric oval spur-wheels, for compensa- 
tion and quick return ; and the tool-holding slide in front of the 
main cutting slide, whilst it serves to give a fine adjustment to 
the tool for circular cutting, may also be screwed on at right 
angles and at different heights. It is removed altogether when 
the tool cuts in right lines. The mandril, or face-chuck spindle, 
descends into a pit, so as to bring the chuck-face considerably 
lower than it otherwise would be. "When revolving for circular 
work, it is raised by bevil-wheels below, but it is let down solid for 
slotting. 

For turning round and hollow surfaces, a vertical worm or tan- 
gent screw, driven from the main gearing, is put in gear with a 
worm-wheel on the crank disc shaft behind, and the required arc is 
obtained by adjusting the crank pin radius to suit, and by suitable 
change-wheels, borrowed from a screw-cutting lathe, and applied to 
actuate the worm. 

For taper slotting, the table is made to tilt as usual, but the 
axis of motion is at right angles to the long traversing slide, so as 
to apply also to boring and turning. The table is also graduated 
on its edge all round. The mandril is driven by a large inverted 
bevil-wheel, concealed beneath the chuck, and a cross shaft is 
so fitted to the face-chuck, that, on traversing it longitudinally, 
either a worm at the front end may be put into gear to turn the 



table for rectilinear cutting, or a bevil-wheel at the opposite end, to 
drive the mandril for circular cutting. 

A particularly elegant plan is also adopted for reversing the 
continuous self-acting feed. For this purpose the actuating worm 
shaft carries a right and left-threaded worm, opposed to, or revers- 
ed, as regards each other. This compound worm is fitted to a 
corresponding duplex worm-wheel, so that either the right or the 
left thread may be put in gear. This ingenious plan is also suita- 
ble for other purposes, and particularly as a substitute for the 
motion commonly used in rack lathes, being cheaper, as doing away 
with three spur-wheels, and more convenient, as the whole of the 
hand gear can be thus carried on the restsaddle. When the work 
is of very large diameter, and revolves, the turner sits on a cross 
plank. 



EXPRESS LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 



EXAMPLE PLATES 



®, 1. 



The three plates constituting this series of views are by far the 
finest examples of the kind ever executed. As specimens of 
shading, they" are chiefly remarkable for a fine bold depth of lining, 
where every individual line tells its tale. Plate © is a longitudinal 
section of the engine ; and Plates © and @ are transverse sec- 
tions. The section, Plate E), is taken one half through the barrel 
of the boiler at the steam dome, showing the sectional area of the 
innermost expanded portion of the inside fire-box ; the other half 
section is taken at a point above the crank-axle, where the narrow 
neck of the inside fire-box occurs. Plate H also furnishes two 
distinct half sections, one through the smoke-box cylinder -and 
blast-pipe, and the other through the fire-box, in the line of the 
safety-valve. 

SPECIFICATION. 

The engines to be made with inside cylinders, outside and inside 
frames, and six wheels; the driving-wheel being seven feet six 
inches diameter, and arranged in the manner hereinafter described. 

The Cylinders to be eighteen inches diameter, and the length of 
stroke two feet, fitted up with pistons made of wrought-iron or 
steel, to be made by Mr. Goodfellow of Manchester. The cylin- 
ders to be of the hardest and best iron, and to be free from all 
defects ; to be bored perfectly parallel, aud true when fitted. The 
cylinder faces to be made accurately to the drawing; also, the 
ports and passages and the faces to be scraped to a perfect surface 
for the valves. 

The Boilers to be eleven feet nine inches long in the cylinder, 
and four feet three and a quarter inches external diameter, and to 
be made perfectly circular and straight. The plates, angle-iron, 
and rivets, to be of the best Lowmoor or Bowling iron, or of equal 
quality, with the maker's name stamped in a legible manner on 
each plate. The rivets to be three-fourths of an inch diameter, 
and to be one and three quarter inches apart from centre to centre 
of nvet. The plates for the cylindrical part of boiler to be three- 
eighths of an inch in thickness, and those for the outer shell of 
fire-box to be of Lowmoor or Bowling iron, or of equal quality, 
three-eighths of an inch in thickness ; and the tube plates of the 
smoke-box end, also, to be of Lowmoor or Bowling iron, or of 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



179 



equal quality ; to be three-fourths of an inch thick. The plates 
of the smoke-boxes and smoke-box door to be of the best Staf- 
fordshire iron, five-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. The chim- 
neys to be made also of StatFordshire iron, one quarter of an inch 
in thickness ; and the whole of the parts of the boilers and smoke- 
boxes to be made and fitted up in the manner shown in the draw- 
ings, which will be supplied. 

The Fire-boxes to be made as shown in drawing, and introduced 
as shown in the cylinder part of the boiler, four feet nine inches ; 
to be made of the best copper plate, free from all defects when 
worked. The tube-plate to be three-fourths of an inch in thickness 
where the tubes are fixed. The sides and end plates to be three- 
eighths of an inch thick, and the roof-plates to be seven -sixteenths 
of an inch thick. The bottom plates to be one-half inch thick. The 
boxes to be made with a middle partition in them ; the plates of 
these partitions to be of copper, made three-eighths of an inch in 
thickness, and formed as shown in drawing. 

The following are the leading inside dimensions of the fire-box : 
— Length on fire-bar to be five feet ten inches and one quarter. 
The length at roof to be ten feet six inches. Depth above fire- 
bars at front plate, six feet five inches. Depth at door-plate, six 
feet ten inches. Width on fire-bar, four feet. Length in cylinder 
of boiler, four feet nine inches. Height at narrowest part, two feet 
three inches. Height at tube-plate, three feet. Width at tube- 
plate, three feet nine inches. 

The top of the box to be supported by twenty-five wrought- 
iron bearers, twenty of which to be five inches deep by one inch 
thick, and the five nearest tube-plate five inches deep by one and 
a half inches thick. These bearers to rest at their ends on the 
side plates of the fire-box ; and to be screwed to the top plate by 
bolts one inch diameter, placed four and a half inches from centre 
to centre, screwed into the top plate. The screw to be of fine 
thread, next head- of bolt, to be one inch and an eighth dia- 
meter ; the head of the bolt to be inside the fire-box, and a nut 
on the end of the bolts on the top of the bearers, with one inch 
screw. 

The Fire-box to be stayed to the boiler by copper bolts, seven- 
eighths of an inch diameter, screwed into the plates with a fine- 
threaded screw, having both ends riveted carefully, and placed four 
inches apart from centre to centre. This also applies to the mid 
partition. 

The end plates above the fire-box to be stayed to the smoke-box 
tube-plate, by connecting them together by two stay bolts, each one 
inch and a quarter diameter. 

The Tubes to be of brass, and made the very best quality, by 
the manufacturer who supplies the company at present ; or of 
other equal quality, and to the approval of the company's en- 
gineer. There will be three hundred and three tubes in each 
engine ; the size, one and three quarter inches outside diameter, 
to section furnished ; and the thickness of metol to be No. 1 '2 
wire-gauge at fire-box end, and No. 14 wire gauge al .smoke-box 
end. 

The Wheels are to be mado entirely of the best scrap wi'OUght- 
iron, and of the very best workmanship. The driving-wheel, 
without tho tyre, to bo seven feet one and a half inches diameter. 
The tyres to be of the best Lowmoor, Bowling, or of equal 



quality; to be finished five and a quarter inches wide, and two and 
a quarter inches thick on the tread. The sizes of the wheel in all 
its parts will be furnished by the company's locomotive engineer at 
Wolverton. 

The Crank Axles to be made of the very best iron from the Low- 
moor, Bowling, or the Haigh foundry forges, or of other equal 
quality, complete and perfect to the sizes given when finished. A 
full-size drawing of the crank-axle in its parts will be supplied. 
The outside bearings to be seven inches diameter, and ten inches 
in length. The inside bearings seven inches diameter, and four and 
a quarter inches in length. The crank bearings to be seven inches 
diameter, and four inches in length. 

The Straight Axles to be tubular, as shown in the drawing, of 
best quality of iron, seven and a quarter inches external diameter, 
and one and a half inch thick of metal. The bearings of the lead- 
ing and trailing axles to be the same size as the crank ; viz., seven 
inches diameter by ten inches long. 

The Axle Boxes and brass bearings to be made according to the 
drawing which will be supplied. 

The Springs, links, and attachments to the axle-boxes, to be 
supplied by the company, and applied according to the instructions 
of their engineer at Wolverton. 

The Pumps to be made of tough brass to the drawing furnished. 
The clacks and boxes to be accurately finished and fitted. The 
pump-rams to be made of strong tough brass, with wrought-iron 
cross-heads, as per drawing. 

The Steam Pipes, blast and feed pipes, to be made of the best 
copper, three-sixteenths of an inch thick, with copper flanges, as per 
drawings to be supplied. 

Regulator to be made of brass, on the equilibrium principle, as 
per drawing. 

The Eccentric Straps to be made of the best wrought-iron, lined 
with gun metal of the best quality, according to drawing, accurately 
fitted, and to have all the oil siphons forged on. 

The Slide Valves to be made of gun metal, and to have an out- 
side lap of one and a quarter inch. They are to have an oil 
or grease cup attached on each side of the smoke-box, to lubricate 
them. 

The Connecting-rods to be made of the very best quality of 
wrought-iron, fitted accurately. The straps to be made as per 
drawing, and the oil siphons to be forged on them. 

The Expansion dear to be made as per drawing, all the work- 
ing and wearing joints and surfaces to bo steeled and hardened, or 
case-hardened. The distance from tho centres of the loading wheel 
axle to tho centres of the middle axle, to be exactly eight feet four 
inches, and from the centre of tho middle to the centre of the trail- 
ing axle, eight feet six inches. 

These Engines are to be manufactured of the very best mate- 
rials and workmanship throughout, and supplied in every respect 
with water-gauges, steam-tops for heating water in tender, whistle 
blow-off cocks, cylinder-oocks, pet-cocks, reversing and expansion 

gear worked from the foot-plate J screw draw -bars (proper and 
in duplicate), ash-pan, damper, sand-boxes, a full set of tools, lamp- 
irons, &c. 

Dotail drawings of all (he parts will be supplied by the company's 
engineer at Wolverton, previous to manufacture. 



180 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



The Safety Valves to be two in number, and to have Salter's 
balance applied ; each valve to be three and a half inches diameter, 
and the levers to be of such length, that one pound upon the end 
of the lever shall indicate exactly one pound upon each square inch 
of the valve. 

The range of the spring balance to be graduated up to one hun- 
dred and fifty pounds. 

All the steam joints to be fitted together by scraping, so as 
to be iron to iron when the joint is made ; and the bolts to 
be placed not more than three inches apart from centre to centre 
of bolt. 

The Cylinder and Yalve-chesl Covers to be of wrought-iron, to 
drawings furnished. 

The Fire-frame to be made in two parts, with a drop apparatus, 
to drawings. 

These engines to have brass domes over the steam-pipe and 
safety-valve, of the best yellow sheet brass ; finished and fitted in 
the best manner, to drawings to be supplied. 

The engines and tenders to have four distinct coats of the best 
paint, to be finished to a specimen colour furnished by the compa- 
nay's engineer. Between each coat of paint, to be rubbed down 
with ground pumicestone to a level smooth surface, and all imper- 
fections removed ; to be lined and finished as required, and to re- 
ceive four distinct coats of the best carriage varnish, and properly 
hardened between each coat. 

All the axles, bolts, pins, screws, and parts of machinery of. these 
engines, to be made exactly to gauges determined by Mr. M'Connell, 
so that they may be perfect duplicates of each other throughout; 
and the company's engineer at Wolverton, or his assistant, shall at 
all times, when they think proper, visit the work while in progress, 
to see that the materials and construction are quite according to 
specification and drawing. Any alteration in the minor details of 
this specification to be adopted, if considered advisable by Mr. 
M'Connell. 

TENDEES. 

The Frames are to be entirely of wrought-iron, the framing to 
be made of the form and dimensions as shown in the drawing ; the 
plates being of the best Staffordshire iron, fitted up in the best 
manner. The side tank plates to be also of Staffordshire iron, 
three-sixteenths of an inch thick, with strong angle-irons as shown, 
and framed with flat plates outside ; the floor and top plates through- 
out are to be one quarter of an inch thick. 

The Wlieels to be three feet nine inches diameter, to be six in 
number, and to be made entirely of wrought-iron, of the very best 
quality and workmanship. The tyres of the wheels to be of the 
best Lowmoor, Bowling, or patent shaft iron, or of equal quality, 
to be approved by the company's engineer, finished to two inches 
and a quarter thick on the tread. 

Drawings of the wheels, with axles and axle-boxes, in detail, will 
be supplied. 

The Axles to be tubular, as per drawing, of quality of iron approv- 
ed by the company's engineer. 

The Springs, as in the case of the engines, to be supplied by the 
company, and applied according to the engineer's instructions. 

The apparatus of the Break will be according to drawing, and 
a break is to be applied to each wheel. 



The Tenders are to be capable of containing two thousand gal- 
lons of water, and two tons of coke, and to have spring-buffers on 
each end ; to be supplied by the company, and fixed according to 
the instructions of their engineer. 

The Draw-rod of the tender will go through from one buffer- 
spring to the other. The floor of tender and foot-plate of engine 
to be exactly a level when properly loaded and roadworthy ; with 
a joint flap-plate fixed to the tender, to overlay between the engine 
and tender. 



WOOD-PLANING MACHINE. 

EXAMPLE PLATE \?. 

The drawing given in our Plate IF, introduces the student to 
increased complexity of details ; and whilst it affords him an oppor- 
tunity of testing his acquirements on minute work, it also well ex- 
emplifies the practice of cast shadows. 

The machine is the production of Messrs. J. M'Dowall & 
Sons, of the Walkinshaw Foundry, Johnstone, Renfrewshire. 
Fig. 1 is a complete longitudinal elevation of the improved planing 
machine, as in working order, wilh a board in the act of passing 
through it to be planed. Fig. 2 is a corresponding plan of the 
machine. The entire apparatus is carried upon the long main 
vertical side standards, a, cast in suitable lengths, and bolted 
down to the foundation by lugs, as at b. These frames are con- 
nected together by transverse end-pieces and tie-rods, to form a 
strong rectangular carrying-frame ; and at one end of it is the 
first motion driving-shaft, c, shown as broken away from its actu- 
ating power. This shaft has an inner end-bearing in one of the 
side standards, and it carries the large first motion-strap pulley, 
d, giving motion to the whole of the cutting movements. From 
this pulley, a broad open strap? e, passes to a small pulley, f, on 
the outer end of a cross shaft, g, running in bearing brackets, h, 
bolted to the framing at the opposite end of the machine. This 
shaft also carries an outside pulley, i, from which a crossed strap, 
j, passes back to a small pulley, k, on the shaft of the compound 
rotatory planing cutter, l, for planing the upper surface of the 
board or flooring deal, M. The spindle of this cutter is carried 
in vertically adjustable end-bearings, n, fitted to the vertical edges 
of the bracket standards, o, which are bolted down on the upper 
edges of the main framing pieces. The cross shaft, g, also car- 
ries a pair of equal-sized strap pulleys, p, whence twisted straps, 
q, pass to the two broad pulleys, r, on the vertical spindles of the 
two cutter heads, s, which cut the edges of the wood, and, if 
necessary, tongue and groove them. These two latter cutter 
spindles are carried in bearings, t, on horizontal dovetail slide- 
pieces, u, adjustable at different distances on each side the longi- 
tudinal centre of the machine, by the action of two screw-spindles, 
one of which is actuated by the outside hand-wheel, v, whilst the 
other spindle, which is only to be shifted occasionally, is adjustable 
by a key, to be shipped on to the square head, w, on the opposite 
side of the machine. The front spindle carries a fine pitched 
worm, x, in gear with a horizontal worm-wheel, T, fast on the 
spindle of a small index-hand, which points to a graduated arc, z, 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



]8J 



and thus indicates the exact " set" of the cutters for the particular 
breadth of timber under treatment. 

As the deal is passed into the machine to be planed, it is first 
of all entered beneath the nipping feed cams, a, which carry it con- 
tinuously forward to the cut. Each nipping arrangement consists 
of a horizontal traversing plate of metal, b, tongued at its opposite 
ends, to slide freely, but accurately, in corresponding grooves in 
the top plates, c, of the standards ; and upon these plates, c, are 
attached a pair of vertical parallel standards, d, connected at 
their upper ends by a light cross bar, e, which answers as well for 
the bearings of the overhead cross-adjusting spindle,/, for the 
"set" of the nippers. Each standard, d, is slotted down its 
centre, to receive and gmde the traversing nut-bearings, g, of the 
cross cam-spindle, h, a screw-spindle, i, being passed down from 
above, and through the nuts, g, so as to enable the cam-spindles, 
h, to be set up or down by the screw action. This screw action 
is worked, when necessary, by handles shipped on to the end of 
the cross-spindle,/, by the workman, who thus works the screws 
simultaneously through the two pairs of small bevil-wheels, j. 
Each cam-spindle, h, has an eccentric cam, a, loosely hung upon 
it by an eye, the cam-eye being entered upon the spindle up 
against an adjustable collar, k, on the latter; and the cam-spindle, 
h, is set fast in the standard slots by the outside adjusting nut, I. 
Thus arranged, the nipper forms a complete traversing frame, 
capable of free horizontal movement along its guide grooves. 
Beneath the level of its traverse support, two projecting eye- 
pieces, m, are cast on the plate, b, each eye carrying a joint-stud, 
n, whence short links, o, pass to corresponding eyes, p, on the 
upper ends of the two sides of the vibrating lever frame-piece, q. 
Each frame is carried on a stud centre, r, in the framing, and each 
has a bottom joint-eye, s, for connection by a link-rod, t, to the 
actuating cam-feed mechanism at the front or entering end of the 
machine. Each frame has also a heavily-weighted bent lever, u, 
attached to its bottom cross bar, and contrived so as to tend to draw 
the frame continually backward in the opposite direction to the 
traverse of the wood. 

The primary movement is given to the entire series of these 
nipping feeders — of which there are six altogether, three being at 
each end of the machine — by a toothed pinion, v, on the first 
motion shaft. This pinion gears with a large toothed wheel, w, 
set on a cross shaft, x, and carrying a second pinion, y, in gear 
with a second spur-wheel, z, fast on the actuating cam-shaft, 4. 
On this shaft are keyed the three separate cams, or differential 
eccentric pieces, 1, 2, 3. Opposite to, and ovor the periphery of 
each cam, is set an antifriction pulley, 5, carried on the horizon- 
tal arm of a bell-crank lever, 6, the three bell-cranks being carried 
loosely on a stud shaft, 7. The longer vertical arms of these 
bell-cranks are connected by eyes, 8, at their lovvor ends to the 
respective rods, t, which are severally linked, as already de- 
scribed, by end and intermediate eyes, to the bottom of each of 
the nipping frames. The throe cams are so set at starling, that 
they shall each act at different periods of the revolution of their 
carrying shai't, in such manner that a uniform feed action may be 
given to the board passing through tho machine In other terms, 
they are set at equal distances asunder in tho direction of revolu- 
tion of their .shaft, each cam being linked to and made to actuate 



two nippers. Thus, the corresponding nippers of each pair have 
always the same relative position, as marked 1, 2, and 3. Then, 
as the planing goes on, and the cams revolve, each pair of nippers 
is made to traverse forward — say in the direction of the arrows at 
1 — by the upward revolving action of the corresponding cam. This 
forward traverse is the positive feed action ; for the moment the 
nipping frame moves in thi3 direction, the prominent eccentric 
portions of the cams, a 1, are thereby carried down, or jammed 
hard upon the upper surface of the timber, squeezing it firm down 
upon the bottom plates, b, so that the timber is carried forward to 
the cut, as if it were permanently attached to the nipping feed- 
frame. Whilst this positive feed is being given to the wood, tho 
two pairs, 2, of the nippers are being brought back by the action 
of their weighted levers, as their corresponding cam is descending 
in its revolution ; these two nippers are consequently slipping over 
the wood, for, on the instant of the return movement towards the 
entering end of the machine, the prominences of the nipping cams 
are drawn out of nipping contact, and the frames go back without 
interfering with the feed traverse of the wood in the forward direc- 
tion. As delineated in the plate, the third pair of nippers are still 
in forward gear, and acting, by reason of the position of their actu- 
ating cams, to carry forward the wood in concert with the nippers, 
1. By this means, as each cam comes round, it gives its forward 
feed and back traverse in regular uniform succession, each succeed- 
ing nipper gradually relieving the last in feeding action. And 
although two nippers always thus tend to come into action at the 
same time, derangement cannot ensue from this cause, inasmuch 
as the quickest forward feeding nippers at any given moment carry 
forward the wood free of the other nippers, which give way in 
their nipping action to the higher rate of motion, by reason of the 
consequent slip or disengagement of the nipping cam. In this 
way the feed is constantly uniform, as although it is furnished by 
three separate actions, yet each only comes into actual feeding play 
at the moment that it is required to keep up the regularity of 
movement. 

As the board is thus carried forward, it comes first above the 
three finishing planes in the frame, 9, over which it is held down 
by the three rollers, 10, which run in adjustable bearings held 
down by the helical springs, 11, adjustable to any desired teii- 
sional pressure by the nuts, 12, on their screwed spindles, 13, 
carried in the stationary frames, 14. After passing these press- 
ers, the emerging end of the wood, as planed and finished on its 
under surface, proceeds beneath the duplex pressing pulleys, 15, 
set on a stud centre on the free end of a lever arm, 16, fast to the 
horizontal shaft, 17, carried in end bearings, 18, in the cud frame, 
and held down by tho lever and weight, 19. Thence it enters 
boneath the pair of horizontal pressing rollers, 20, similarly held 
down by adjustable helices, 21 ; and it is between these two rollers 
that the planing of the upper surface takes place. At the 
moment, however, of its passage boneath the duplex pulley, 15, it 
is first acted upon by the two cutting heads, s. In the present 
example, these cutters are arranged for tohgueing and grooving 
the opposite edges of tho flooring deal, as is usual in laying floor- 
ing. Thus, in the elevation, fig. 1, the two square cutters, 22, 
take off the two angles of one edge of the deal, having the central 
feather or tongue standing up, whilst the other double angular 



182 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



single cutter, 23, takes off the sharp angles from the tongue. 
Again, the opposite cutter head, for the other side, carries three 
plain central grooving cutters, 24, for producing the plain groove, 
whilst a fourth duplex cutter, 25, is added, to shave off the angu- 
lar edges in a similar way. This completes the edge finish of the 
board; and the latter then being held well down by the rollers, 
20, is submitted to the action of the rotatory cutter, or " thick- 
nesser," l, for bringing the upper side of the wood to a fair level, 
and equalizing the thickness of the deal, when the latter is drawn 
completely through the machine in a finished state. 



WASHING MACHINE FOR PIECE GOODS. 
EXAMPLE PLATE <§. 

The three views on this plate illustrate a machine, first in per- 
spective elevation, and then in plain geometrical section, present- 
ing good studies for " effect," and contrasting the working draw- 
ing with the perspective picture. Fig. 1 is a perspective eleva- 
tion of the washer complete, showing the whole of the gearing for 
actuating the moving details ; fig. 2 is a longitudinal section on a 
larger scale; and fig. 3 is a corresponding transverse section — 
that is, at right angles to fig. 2. The main body of the machine 
consists of an open rectangular cistern, a, of cast-iron, whjch is 
kept about half full of the cleansing water. A couple of horizon- 
tal transverse shafts, b, c, are passed through this cistern, being 
tarried in bearings in the two opposite side plates, and projecting 
through on one side to carry the spur-wheels, d, e. These shafts 
are made to revolve in the same direction by the revolution of 
the intermediate driving shaft, f, carrying a third spur-wheel, g, 
in gear with the other two. The two shafts, e, c, have each a 
pair of end discs, h, i, fast upon them, to hold the diametrically 
opposed parallel rail bars, J, which form the fiat winces or revolv- 
ing frames, for acting upon the goods in the washing movement. 
These details, indeed, constitute the whole of the action. 

The same central wheel, g, also drives an overhead wheel, k, 
of similar size, for actuating squeezing rollers, l. These rollers 
are of large diameter and of considerable breadth, and are set in 
bearings in the pair of vertical standards, M, carried on a cross 
bar on the top of the cistern, on which also is a low standard, n, 
for the bearing of the overhanging end of the bottom roller 
driving shaft. The bearings of this bottom roller are fixed ; but 
those of the upper one are adjustable in the central vertical slots 
of their standards, by means of screws and hand-wheels at the 
top, to give any required pressure to the issuing goos. 

In erecting the machine for work, the shafts and rails of the 
washing movement are set in one plane, and the water-level is 
adjusted to the line of the shaft centres. The fabric to be 
cleansed is then fed in at one end, o, of the cistern, where two 
lengths are represented as being entered. Here it descends be- 
neath a fixed guide-roller, p, and thence passes beneath the pair 
of nipping rollers, q, set in bearings on the side of a division piece, 
r, and adjustable by hand- wheels and screws. After leaving 
these rollers, the course of the goods is again downwards, beneath 



the fixed guide-roller, s, and thence between the first pair of ver- 
tical guide-bars, T. The direction is then round the under side of 
the flat wince at the opposite end of the cistern, the fabric being 
turned back over the bars, j. It then returns towards the front 
end of the cistern, and is similarly passed round the bars, j, of 
the disc, i, from the upper side — this return course being through 
the second pair or space of the division bars, T. The fabric 
finally returns through the third guide-space, and in contact with 
the wince bars, and is then passed up beneath the guide-roller, u, 
set at the water-level at the delivering end. From this point, it 
passes over the top of the external guide-roller, v, and is finally 
delivered through the squeezing rollers, L. As there are two 
lines of goods shown under treatment, it is obvious that both 
follow the same course. 



POWER-LOOM. 
EXAMPLE PLATE KJ. 

We here illustrate the treatment of a piece of textile machinery 
in a comparatively plain style. The rounds only are slightly 
shaded up, whilst relief is given to the drawing merely by flat 
tinting upon the main framing. The loom is the invention of 
Mr. William Milligan, of Bradford, who has accomplished in it 
the desirable objects of putting any number of picks into a given 
length of warp, widlst the number of picks are capable of varia- 
tion without the use of change-wheels, or the alteration of the 
weight on the yard-beam, so that the warp may be kept as tight 
as its strength will bear, without involving any unevenuess in the 
woven fabric. It has an advantage over all friction motions — • 
that it will neither slip nor fray the cloth, and weaves wet weft as 
well as dry. 

Fig. 1 on our plate is a complete side or end elevation of the 
loom in working order, looking on the " taking-up motion " side ; 
and fig. 2 is a corresponding longitudinal or front elevation, that 
is, looking on the cloth-beam side. The cloth-beam is at a, being 
carried on a spindle supported in a slot in the side standards, on 
one end of which spindle is a spur-wheel, b, outside the frame, in 
gear with the pinion, c. This pinion is carried on the fixed stud- 
shaft of the wheel, d, and moves along with this wheel, which 
again is in gear with a pinion, e, carried round along with the 
ratchet-wheel, f. Immediately above the cloth-beam, and resting 
upon the fabric in the act of being wound thereon, and with its 
ends supported in vertical slots, g, in the loom side-frames, is a 
horizontal rod, h. This rod, as it bears freely upon the folds of 
cloth on the beam, is gradually elevated in its guide-slots by each 
additional fold of the cloth, as the beam takes up the fabric by its 
slow revolution. The end of the spindle of the cloth-beam has 
also upon it a loose bent slotted lever, i, standing up at a slight 
inclination with the vertical line, and behind the rod, h. This 
lever has an adjustable pin in its slot, to which pin is jointed one 
end of the link, j, the other end of wiiich is similarly connected to 
a slot in the upright lever, k, behind. This lever is connected, as 
we shall hereafter explain, with the eccentric tappet, l, keyed on 
one end of the tappet-shaft, m. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



183 



When the loom is in action, as the horizontal rod, h, of the 
cloth-beam gradually rises from the accumulated folds of the 
cloth beneath it, it presses against the inclined side of the lever, i, 
raising it by degrees to a vertical position. By this action, with 
every slight advance of the lever, i, towards the vertical line, it 
thus pushes back the lever, k, by the intervention of the connect- 
ing-rod, j, so as to shorten the extent of the traverse of the lever, 
k. The latter lever works loose in a fixed stud centre, n, in the 
side-frame, and, thus suspended, it is connected by its straight 
pendant end, or lower arm, with the wheel-work which we have 
just described, and by its back angular arm, with the eccentric 
tappet, l, on the same shaft as the ratchet-wheel, f ; and outside 
this wheel is set the regulator, o, the lower eye of which turns 
loosely on the ratchet-shaft as a centre. This regulator is simply 
a slotted lever, having a sliding-piece, p, set to move up and down 
in the slot ; and at its upper end is a short collar, acting as a bear- 
ing for the upper end of a screwed spindle, q, the lower opposite 
end of which is passed through a screwed hole in the sliding- 
piece, p. In this way the sliding-piece, p, answers as a nut for 
the screw, q, and the turning of the screw consequently allows of 
the raising or lowering of the nut or slide-piece at pleasure. To 
the top of the regulator are hinged three detents, e, each of which 
takes into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel, f. On first setting the 
loom to work, the height of the slide-nut, p, of the regulator, is 
first adjusted to suit the required number of picks to be laid into 
the fabric per inch, and the regulator and lever, i, are pushed 
forward by means of the lever, K, as far as the rod, H, will permit. 
When the loom is put in motion, the eccentric, l, during one-half 
of its first revolution, presses against the projecting angular end 
of the lever, k, and pushes it out to an extent equal to its eccen- 
tricity, whereby the regulator is drawn back, to a corresponding 
extent, by the connecting-rod, s, whilst the detents, e, bring 
round the ratchet-wheel, f. During the remaining half of the 
revolution of the eccentric, the angular tail of the lever, k, de- 
scends as far as the then degree of elevation of the cloth-beam 
rod, h, will permit, and the detents, e, are raised out of their 
position, and lifted as many teeth back as is equal to the distance 
retraversed, the three detents, t, suspended from the centre of 
the wheel, b, serving to hold the ratchet-wheel fast whilst this 
change occurs. It will thus be seen, that whilst the detents, r, 
are always drawn the same distance during one-half revolution of 
the eccentric, the distance to which they are returned in the other 
half revolution must be less, as the cloth-beam rod, H, is raised 
higher by the winding on of the cloth. The lever, i, should be 
parallel with the slots in which the rod, h, works, when the 
projecting end of the lever, k, is elevated to the top by the 
eccentric, l, and it should rest on the rod, h, when the eccentric 
is down. 

At u is a short lover connected with the weft-motion of the 
loom, which lever raises the detents, t, by means of a chain, off 
the ratchet^whoel, to stop the movement when the weft breaks. 
The lever, u, is fast on one end of the horizontal rod, v, on tho 
other end of which is a balanced lever, worked by the weft thread, 
on the principle of tlio ordinary well-known weft-stopping ap- 
paratus. 



DUPLEX STEAM BOILER. 

EXAMPLE PLATE Q. 

This, our ninth example plate, illustrates a most effective style 
of treatment of a stationary steam boiler, its seating and mountings. 
In these views the convex and concave rounds are well brought 
out, and considerable relief is given to the furnace doors and boiler 
ends by the judicious employment of shadows. The water in the 
sectional view, and more especially the 
brickwork in the elevation, supply 
materials for the development of the 
picturesque; and the plate, upon the 
whole, is a fan- type of a class of work 




in which a good display is made without much elaboration. The 
boiler, which is the production of Messrs. Bellhouse & Co., of 
the Eagle Foundry, Manchester, is of the duplex or " twin" kind ; 
that is, two distinct steam generators are combined together, to 
work as one boiler, the two being placed side by side, with a 
central tubular chamber between them. It is this intermediate 
flue which forms the distinguishing feature of the contrivance, the 
smoke and heated air from the two generators being passed 
through this chamber, on their way from their respective furnaces, 
to the chimney. 

Fig. 1, on the plate, is a front end elevation of the duplex 
boiler, as erected in brickwork; fig. 2 is a transverse vertical 
section corresponding, the section being taken through the two 
furnaces, the brickwork and flues, and the overhead steam-chest; 
fig. 3, the wood engraving in the body of the description, is a lon- 
gitudinal section of the arrangement, taken through the inter- 
mediate chamber, the external flues, waterways, and the steam- 
chest ; and fig. 4 is a sectional plan to correspond. Both those 
latter views are drawn to a scale of one-half tho corresponding 
views in the plato. 

The two boilers or generators, a, are of the common cylindri- 
cal, tubular class, with internal furnaces and flues, B, running right 
through them from end to end. They arc set in a brick founda- 
tion, c, suitable flues being formed in the walls of brickwork, to 
answer for the special arrangements of the combination. Each 
boiler is fired separately, through the usual end furnace doors, d, 
ami tho gaseous products pass oil' from each set of furnace bars in 
tho direction of the arrows, the two currents meeting and forming 
into one, in (ho main end transverse ilue. e, in the brickwork. 

This Combined current then turns again towards the front of tho 

boiler, passing directly through the intermediate chamber oi tubes. 



184 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



F, which chamber is formed on its two walls by the contiguous 
surfaces of the boilers, a, and on its top and bottom by an over- 
head arch, g, of brickwork, and the mass of the brickwork base. 
The short tubes, h, which cross the space between the two 
boilers, are water-spaces, being open at each end into the respect- 
ive boilers, beneath the water-line therein ; thus, the heated 
current being intercepted by this arrangement of tubular water- 
spaces, as it traverses the intermediate chamber, imparts its heat 
to an extended heating area. The tubes are disposed in two 
rows, sloping at reversed angles from one boiler to the other, to 
aid the internal circulation and the passing away of the steam. 
This central thoroughfare, f, then conveys the current of heat 
and gaseous products to the front end of the boiler, where it 
diverges, as at i, descending into a short transverse flue, J, passing 

Fig. 4. 





^^^^^^^^^^^^^^\ " " N v^yj§»» 



beneath the generator on that side. This conveys the current 
into the external longitudinal flue, k, surrounding and covering in 
a great portion of the outer side and bottom of that generator ; 
and this flue, K, theii forms the duct for the traverse of the current 
a second time to the far end of the boilers. Having reached this 
part, the current next enters another bottom transverse flue, L, 
beneath the back end of the intermediate chamber or cell, f, and 
through this short flue the current enters the external longitudinal 
flue, m, of the opposite generator, precisely similar to the before- 
mentioned external flue, k. In this way, this latter generator is 
well heated externally, like the former one ; and as the flue runs 
all the way back to the furnace end of the boiler, the current 
finally passes off along it, and through the short branch, n, to the 
chimney. With a boiler so contrived, the whole of the large flue 
area in the centre of the boiler is well exposed to the direct 
heat of the furnaces ; and the greatest possible portion of the 
external boiler surface is similarly acted upon, and heated after 
the current leaves the central passage, whilst the possession of 
this central chamber admits of the perfect commingling of the 
gaseous products of combustion, and the obtainment of a greatly 
increased heating area, from the arrangement of the pipes therein. 
The two generators, thus equally and uniformly heated, furnish 



each its own supply of steam, through the overhead vertical pipes, 
o, to the horizontal steam-chest, p. Any number of such gene- 
rators may, of course, be combined together, securing all the 
advantages of an intermediate fluo-cell between each. 



DIRECT-ACTING MARINE ENGINES. 
EXAMPLE PLATE $. 

This plate deserves careful study for its round shading. The 
development of the right-hand cylinder in the elevation is a 
beautifully executed piece of work ; and the firm, bold, flat tinting 
of the side view of the deep sole-plate, throws out the pump and 
small branch pipes very powerfully. It is to be remarked that, 
in this instance, flat tints are sparingly used, the more minute 
details being left plain ; but tints were absolutely necessary in the 
plan, for giving a due idea of depth. 

The Duncan Hoyle paddle steamer, in which these engines are 
fitted, was built by Messrs. John Scott & Sons, of Greenock, a 
firm as well and favourably known in connection with the past 
history and modern practice of naval architecture, as is that of 
Messrs. Scott, Sinclair & Co., with marine engineering. This 
vessel measures 200 tons, her length is 145 feet, breadth 18 feet, 
depth 9 feet; and her engines, to which we are now directing 
attention, are of 90 nominal horse power. The two steam cylin- 
ders are each 37 inches diameter and 3 feet stroke, placed diago- 
nally fore and aft the ship, and nearly at right angles to each 
other — the amount of divergence from the true right angle being 
a trifling extent due to the local necessities of the hull. They 
occupy a space on the vessel's floor of 15 feet fore and aft, by 5 
feet 6 inches transversely. 

We have ourselves a strong feeling in favour of the oscillating 
engine for most marine and river purposes ; but we admit the 
existence of some force, in what the designer — Mr. G. W. Jaffrey 
— of the Duncan Hoyle's engines urges on behalf of this fixed- 
cylinder, direct-action arrangement. He claims an especial feature 
of superiority, on the ground that the weight is better distributed, 
covering a large surface of the vessel's bottom ; whilst all the parts 
are firmly and rigidly bound together, so that no one part can 
yield from another. For this latter reason, the loose-working 
jingling action, not uncommon in old oscillators, can never arise 
in the engines now before us. They are obviously applicable 
either for direct connection with paddles, or as geared screw 
engines. The Duncan Hoyle was built for the Australian coast- 
ing trade, to run between Melbourne, Geelong, and Launceston. 
Her owner, Captain Kincaid, gives a most favourable account of 
her performances since she left this country ; and particularly as a 
sea-boat, as she went out under canvas only. Besides this, later 
accounts tell us that her engines have worked admirably, and 
have not been afflicted with a single hot bearing, although put to 
work at once, just as they left the Scottish shores. Indeed, we 
have the best possible proof of her good qualities, in the fact that 
she has since changed hands at an advance of £10,000 upon her 
original cost. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



185 



CHAPTER XV. 



DRAWING INSTRUMENTS 



" A good workman never complains of his tools," — although 
a very ancient proverb, and having a poet for its advocate, is, 
nevertheless, one which is very commonly used in an incorrect 
sense, if it is not indeed untrue in all its applications. It is 
certainly a very usual thing for a bad workman to throw the 
blame of his inefficiency on his tools ; but it is quite as certain 
that a good workman will not work with any but the very best 
tools. The draughtsman, then, who aims at excellence and accu- 
racy in his mechanical delineations, must not only possess himself 
of first-rate mathematical instruments, but he must preserve them 
in perfect order. 

The varieties of drawing instruments are extremely numerous. 
We shall, however, confine our illustrations to such as are of more 
recent invention, or more improved construction. 

A lead pencil needs no description. But the form to be given 
to its working-point is a very important subject of consideration. 
For drawing straight lines with the assistance of a straight edge, 
the point should be flat, and slightly rounded. Such a point pro- 
duces as fine a line as a conical point, whilst it is much stronger, 
and preserves its integrity for a longer time. This point may also 
be used in describing circles of large diameter, but small circles 
require a conical point. 

Messrs. Marion, of Regent street, London, have registered a very 
ingenious little instrument for sharpening lead pencils and crayons. 
Our engraving, fig. 1, represents a side elevation of the tool in the 
act of sharpening a pencil. A projection, a, is formed on the 

side of a piece of 
Fi s- '• metal, sufficiently 

large to allow of 
a conical aper- 
ture, b, corre- 
sponding with the 
required cone of 
a pointed lead 
pencil. One side 
of this projection 
is slotted to re- 
ceive the cutting edge of the small knife, c, which is attached to 
the inclined portion, d, of the metal block by the screw, e, passing 
through a slot in the knife. A short projection, f, is formed upon 
the knife for the convenience of adjustment, and when set, it i.s 
held in position by the two set-screws, g. A small handle is 
screwed into the block at h, from behind, for tho convenience of 
holding the instrument when in use, and tho end of this handle is 
hollowed to receive the small projection, f, on tho knife, c, for tho 
facility of holding it when detached for the purpose of sharpening 
tho edge. An adjustable guide, I, is secured by the pinching- 
scrow, j, by one end, beneath tho block, and is furnished with two 
arms, k, jointed on to the end of the rod of the guido, for em- 
bracing the pencil, l, during the cutting operation. 




Fig. 2. 



In using this instrument, the pencil is simply passed between 
the two guide-arms, k, and its end is inserted in the conical hole, b. 
It is then turned round between the finger and thumb, and the 
knife-edge coming into' contact with the end to be sharpened, 
quickly pares off" the material. By this simple apparatus an ex- 
cellent point is given to the pencil in a very short time, saving 
the draughtsman from all the troubles and inconveniences of 
blunt penknives and fractured lead. 

A mathematical drawing-pen consists of a pair of 
flat, tapered steel-blades, fixed to a handle of ivory 
or ebony. The ink is contained between the blades, 
and flows out from between the points, the thickness 
of line produced being dependent on the distance 
asunder of the points, which distance is regulated by 
a pinching-screw. In order to maintain a uniform 
thickness of line, care must be taken to clean the 
outsides of the points after each fresh supply of ink. 
It is often necessary to draw a number of lines, of 
different thicknesses, immediately succeeding each 
other. In this case, the inconvenience of repeatedly 
turning the adjusting-screw of the pen may be 
avoided by using a pen of the construction repre- 
sented in figs. 2 and 3. This pen is the invention of 
M. Maubert, a French engineer, and differs from the 
ordinary drawing-pen in the shape of the points, g, h, 
of which fig. 3 is an end view. These points are 
made broad and rounded, and are bent at the sides, 
so as to present convex surfaces towards each other ; 
in other words, they touch each other at then- 
centres, but are gradually more separate towards 
each side ; and in using the pen, if a fine line is 
wanted, it is held vertically ; if a thick line is needed, 
it is inclined more or less to either side, so as to 
bring the more separated portions of the acting edges 
in contact with the paper. With the exception of 
the shape of the points, the pen represented in fig. 2 
may be taken as an example of the best construction 
of a mathematical drawing-pen. The blades are 
formed of a single piece of well-tempered steel, and 
are fixed upon an ivory handle, by means of a brass 
socket. In some pens, the tips only of the blades 
are of steel, the remainder being of Gorman silver, or 
of brass ; and one blade is jointed at its root, so as 
to bo capable of being opened out and cleaned, when 
necessary. A spring is fixed between tho blades, 
so as to keep them open as far as tho regulating screw 
will admit. Whilst, on tho one hand, this facility in cleaning is 
an advantage; on the other, there is an accompanying liabilin of 
the joint getting loose, in whiofa case the points c:\n never bo kept 
opposite to each other, and it is quite impossible to preserve nm 



W 



Fig. 3. 



186 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



formity and cleanness of lining with a pen in such a state. In 
making mechanical drawings in outline, and with shadow lines, 
two thicknesses of lining are necessary ; and for this purpose, tho 
secondary adjustment drawing-pen will be found very convenient. 
This modification of the common drawing-pen is the invention of 
Mr. G. P. Renshaw. It is represented in fig. 4. It has a regulating 




6crew, a, like an ordinary drawing-pen ; and by means of this 
screw the points are set for the thick or shadow line, whilst a 
secondary screw, b, is introduced, for regulating the thin or face 
line. The pen is made with a stronger spring than usual, and 
when a fine line is wanted, the points are pinched together by the 
grasp of the ringers, as closely as the screw, b, will permit; whilst 
a thick line is produced, by allowing the points to stand as far 
apart as the screw, a, is set for. We may here remark, that in 
using a drawing pen of any construction, care must be taken not 
to press it against the straight edge, or ruler, as this will close the 
points ; and if the pressure is not uniform, which is pretty certain 
to be the case, where any pressure is used, a line of irregular 
thickness will be the inevitable result. 

In fig. 5 is represented a duplex pen, commonly known as the 
"road-pen." It is a very convenient instrument for drawing 
lines in couples, parallel to each other. It consists of two pens, 
fixed upon one handle, their distance apart being regulated by a 
screw, with a central button, the portions entering the shanks of 
the pen having the thread in opposite directions, so as to open 
or shut the shanks according to the direction in which the button 
is turned. The two pens are of the usual construction, with 
regulating screws ; and they may both be set for the same thick- 
ness of line or not, as convenient. Thus, one can be set for the 
face-line, and the other for the shadow, or back-line, of a hedge, 
or other parallel-edged prominence. This instrument is mostly 
used in topographical drawing. 

In some cases of instruments is still to be found a pen for 
drawing dotted lines, resembling the ordinary lining-pen, in shape 
with the addition of a small wheel, like a spur-rowel, and pivoted 
in the rounded points of the pen-bladss. The ink is introduced 
between the blades, and the points of the row T el pass through it, 
and are intended to transfer to the paper beneath just sufficient 
ink to produce a line of dots. The action of the instrument, 
however, is very imperfect, and it is all but discarded by modern 
draughtsmen, who prefer drawing dotted lines with the ordinary 
pen. Indeed, the time gained by using the rowel dotting-pen, 
when in perfect working condition, is lost in bringing it to that 
condition. Besides, the pitch and depth of the dotted lining are 
liable to constant variation, according as the work in hand is on a 
large or small scale ; and with the common pen, the operator can 
easily effect the necessary changes, whilst the dotting-wheel binds 
him down to one class of line. 

We are, however, indebted to the ingenuity of French draughts- 



men for a dotting-pen of very elegant action, and capable of pro. 
ducing a great variety of dotted linings. This instrument is re- 
presented in figs. 6 and 7, the former being a side elevation, and 
the latter a transverse vertical section. To a neat ebony or ivory 
handle is attached a small frame, e, carrying two pulleys, or run- 
ning-wheels, f, g. The latter wheel is carried 
upon a steel stud, riveted to tho plate, e, and of 
considerable diameter, for the sake of steadiness. Fig. 5. 

This stud, likewise, carries a disc, b, made to re- 
volve with the wheel, g, by means of a pin, a, 
entering a socket in the latter. A nut is passed 
on the screwed end of the stud, to retain the 
wheel and disc. The disc, b, is of slightly less 
diameter than the wheel, g, and it is formed with 
indentations, to act as a rotatory cam. Imme- 
diately above the disc is the lever, h, which 
carries a pencil, or pen, of the ordinary descrip- 
tion. The lever, h, vibrates on a screw-pin, 
securing it to the framing, e, and it is pressed 
down by a blade-spring, d. It is formed with a 
projection, c, which enters the indentations on the 
periphery of the disc, b; so that the rotation 
causes it, and with it the pen or pencil, to rise 
and fall. The action of the instrument is ob- 
vious. The back of the plate, e, is guided along 
the edge of a ruler, or square, the wheels being 
permitted to run on the paper ; this motion turns 
the disc, b, and causes the pen to rise from or 
touch the paper at intervals, according to the 
character of the indentations on the disc. The 
pulley, f, is simply to preserve the level of the 
instrument, and is carried loose on a pin, screwed 
into the frame, e. A number of discs are pro- 
vided with different patterns of indentations, so 
that any one may be substituted for the disc, b, to 
correspond to the description of dotted line the 
draughtsman desires to produce. 

A draughtsman requires several descriptions of 
compasses. The simplest are distinguished as 
dividers, and are used for transferring measure- 
ments from a drawing which is being copied, or 
from a scale ; and also, as the name implies, for 
dividing lines and circles into equal parts. For 
this latter purpose, it is on the trial and error 
system that they are employed, if at all. Dividers 
consist of a pair of legs, pointed at one end, and 
jointed together at the other ; the points, and a 
considerable portion of the leg, being of steel, 
whilst the shanks are of brass, German silver, or composition- 
metal. German silver or composition-metal is to be preferred to 
brass, as the latter gets soiled sooner, contracting a species of 
greasiness from the atmosphere and perspiration of the hand, 
accompanied by an unpleasant odour. The joint of the dividers, 
and of all compasses, must be made free from all cross play, or 
lateral looseness. The most ordinary kind are fastened simply 
by a common screw. We have, indeed, seen some very ordinary 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



187 



5nes riveted together. The better kind have a steel pin passed 
through the leaves of the joint, upon which a flat brass or other 



Fig. 6. 



Fig- 7. 




metal nut is passed, at the further side. This nut has two small 
holes upon its face, for the introduction of the points of a turn- 
screw, to be met with in most sets of instruments. The joint- 
leaf of one leg of a pair of compasses is usually of steel, as this 
arrangement gives a smoother action than when both sides of the 
joint are of the same metal. The better kind are also made with 
two steel leaves on one side, which are introduced between three 
brass ones on the other ; but some have only one leaf on one side, 
and two on the other. A perfect compass-joint is a thing seldom 
met with, and draughtsmen are continually subject to annoyance, 
arising from the inequality of action of the joints of their com- 
passes. After some 
little usage, these 
parts invariably im- 
bibe the bad habit of 
an alternate tightness 
and looseness, so that 
when the screw is adjusted to tighten the joint for one part of 
its movement, the objectionable slackness is only removed at the 
expense of an equally provoking stiffness in another part. Messrs. 
Bentley's " spiral spring compasses " aim at remedying this evil, 
by the adaptation of a small coiled spring to the joint, in such a 
manner as to equalize the pressure of the frictional surfaces 
throughout the entire movement. Our sketch, fig. 8, which re- 
presents a side view of the end of the centre joint of the compasses, 
explains the mode of application of the spring. The centre joint, 
a, which is sectioned to show the spring, has a recess bored out of 
one side of it, just large enough to receive the short coiled spring, 




b. 'When this centre joint is inserted between the two eyes 

forming the outer joints, the spring reacts from the bottom of its 

box against one of the eyes or cheeks of the outside joint, thus 

keeping up a regular smooth working pressure on the joint surface- 
Externally, this little modification in no way affects the appear- 
ance of the instrument, as the spring, being entirely embedded in 

its recess, is not seen. At a mere trifle in the increase of the 

cost, an important objection is here remedied by very simple 

means. 

Some dividers are made with one of the legs so fitted as to be 

capable of a slight adjustment independently 

of the main joint. These are called " hair Fig. 9. 

dividers," and are represented in fig. 9. The 

leg, a, is not, like the other, soldered to the 

shank, but is formed with a long thin strip of 

metal, which lies in a groove on the inside of 

the shank, and is fixed to the latter by a screw, 

at its upper end, near the compasses joint. 

This thin strip acts as a spring to bring the 

point, a, nearer to the point of the other leg. 

A screw, b, passed through the shank, adjusts 

the point, a, a slight distance in or outwards, 

thus affording a means of taking measurements 

more minutely accurate than with the mere 

direct action of the hand upon the main joint. 

Our fig. 9 may be taken as the representation 
. of a very excellent style of dividers. The 

point should be strong, and not too finely 

tapered, and they should meet when the in- 
strument is closed. 
All sets of instruments contain a large pair 

of compasses, in addition to the dividers, which 

is usually of similar construction, except that 

one of the legs is made to fit into a socket in 

the shank, and a pencil or pen may be substi- 
tuted, as required. The pencil-holder and pen 

are both jointed, so that, in every case, they 

may be put in the best position for action. In 

the better kind, the fixed leg is also jointed; so 

that in describing circles of large diameter, the 

centre point may still be entered vertically into 

the paper. A lengthening bar is also provided, which can be fitted 
into the shank-socket, whilst the pen or pencil can be placed at 
the end of the bar, thus giving the compasses a greater range. 

In figs. 10 and 11, we have represented a modification of Ihxa 
instrument, of German invention. This tool has no separate 
pieces, but is so arranged, that a pen, pencil, or point, may be 
brought into action as desired. The shanks are forked, and the 
log pieces are jointed to their extremities. One of the leg pieces 
is formed with a steel point at one end, ami a pen at the other; 
whilst the other leg has a stool point at one end, and a had pencil 
at the other. Tho legs aro jointed to the shanks by their longi- 
tudinal centres, and can bo turned between tho forks, so as to 
bring into action whichever end of the leg is required. A small 
pinching-serew is passed through one side of the shank, near its 
extremity, to fix the leg in position. 



188 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



Fig. 10. 




Fig. 12. 



Fig. 12 is the repre- 
sentation of a some- 
what smaller pair of 
compasses, in which 
the pen is formed in 
one piece with a steel 
point, which may be 
inverted, or a pencil- 
holder introduced in- 
stead. This is a con- 
venient instrument for 
small work. 

Another form of 
compass is represented 
in figs. 13, 14, 15, and 
16. This is a "pock- 
et," or " turn-in " com- 
pass, and takes up a 
very small spaco when 
closed, as in fig. 13. 
Fig. 14 is a cross sec- 
tion, taken at the line 
1—2, in fig. 13. Figs. 
15 and 16 are front and 
side views of the in- 
strument when fully 
open. These com- 
passes are of French 
construction, and in 
some points not unlike 
the German pair just 
described. The shanks 
are each jointed, and their lower portions 
are forked to receive the swivelling points, 
which are jointed to them at their extremi- 
ties. The swivelling points are formed 
respectively with a pen and pencil at their 
opposite extremities, and any one of these 
may be turned round into working position 
when required. A lateral screw for fixing 
the points, as in the German instrument, 
would be an improvement. Grooves are 
formed in the upper ends of the shanks, as 
shown in the section, fig. 14, and in these 
the points lie when the instrument is folded, 
as in fig. 13. When in this state, the pen 
and pencil points lie within the forks of the 
lower joints. This tool is particularly con- 
venient for those who require to carry draw- 
ing instruments with them from place to 
place. 

We have next to describe the various 
forms of compasses of a smaller size, and 
called "bow compasses." No mechanical 
draughtsman can be without these, for the 
larger size are far too heavy and cumbrous 



for the smaller and more delicate work which he is constantly 
called upon to execute. Fig. 17 is a front, and fig. 18 a side 
elevation of a very neat form of jointed bow compasses with 
a pen. The main joint is embraced by two eye plates, to 
which a small handle is attached. A portion of this handle is 
milled, to give control over the instrument and facility in turning 
it. It will also be observed that the centre point is a needle, 
held by a small screw, in a socket formed in the leg of the 
instrument. This arrangement affords a means of adjustment 
as to length, w 7 hilst the point can easily be replaced if acci- 
dentally broken. Compasses of the larger size are sometimes 
made with similar needles, but this refinement is considered by 
most draughtsmen as unnecessary in them, if the needle is 
not indeed inferior to the ordinary point, which, from its greater 



Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 




Fig. 14. 

size and strength, is 
less liable to injury. 
Both legs of the bow- 
pen compasses are 
jointed. Fig. 19 is a 
front elevation of an 
instrument precisely 
similar to the last, ex- 
cept that it has a pen- 
cil instead of a pen. 
Tnese compasses re- 
quire to be adjusted to any desired radius by the direct action of 
the hand. In work where great accuracy and minuteness is called 
for, it will often be found a very tedious matter to obtain a true 
adjustment in this manner, particularly if the joints of the instru- 
ment are not in perfect working condition. This difficulty is got 
over in what are termed " spring," or " screw " bow compasses. 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



189 



Fig. 20 is a side, and fig. 21 a front view of a pair of pen com- 
passes of this class. The use of such instruments is confined to 



Fig. 17. Fig. 18. 



Fig. 19. 



Fig. 20. 



Fig 21. 





very small circles, of half or three quarters of an inch in radius at 
the most. In the example we have selected for illustration, the 
centre leg is of brass, or German silver, and is in one piece with 
the milled handle. It is also provided 
with a needle point. The pen is made 
with a spring-tempered steel shank, K, 
which lies in a groove cut in the centre 
leg, or body, and which is fixed to the 
latter, at its top, by a screw. A small 
screw spindle, l, is passed through an 
opening in the pen shank, and is jointed 
to the centre leg, and a button, or nut, 
is passed on to the screw spindle outside 
the shank. This pen shank is so fixed 
as to have a tendency to stand out from 
the centre leg to the full extent of tho 
instrument's range, and by turning the 
button of the screw, L, it may bo forced 
in or allowed to open, so as to give the 
necessary adjustment. Fig. 22 is a side 
elevation of a pair of slightly modified 
spring-and-screw compasses ; it is shown 
with a socket, carrying an engraver's 
burin. An ivory handle is fixed to the 
centre leg,/>r body of the instrument ; and 

this arrangement is considered by some artists to give greater 
control over its action. The commoner kind of spring bow nun- 
passes consists of a single piece of steel forming the two legB, and 



Fig. 22, 



having a small brass handle attached. The steel 
of the legs is so tempered as to give them a ten- 
dency to stand apart, and the radius distance is 
regulated by a screw in the same manner as in the 
instruments represented in figs. 20, 21, and 22. 

The draughtsman has frequently to delineate 
circles of a radius far exceeding the range of ordi- 
nary compasses, and for this purpose he must pro- 
vide himself with " beam " compasses. A good 
form of this instrument is represented in side eleva- 
tion, in fig. 23, and in transverse vertical section, 
in fig. 24. It consists of a wooden bar, or ruler, 
t, of considerable length, and of a X section, being 
formed of two strips united by a dovetail joint. 
This construction prevents warping or bending, 
and is necessary where a scale is cut on the bar, as 
any deviation from a straight line would render the 
measurement inaccurate. The compasses are pro- 
vided with a pen, or pencil leg, and a centre leg, 
these being fitted upon the bar with socket pieces, 
m, m'. These socket pieces are fixed at any point 
along the bar, by pinching screws at the side ; but 
to prevent the point of the screw from injuring the 
bar, a loose plate of metal is interposed next to the 
bar, as shown in the section, fig. 24. The socket, 
m, is in a solid piece with its pen, or pencil- 
holder ; but the centre leg, n, is in a separate 
piece from its socket, m', and is capable of minute 
adjustment back or forward in the latter. The 
socket, m, has a cylindrical groove along its under side, in which 
slides the head of the leg, n. This head is formed with a 



Fig. 23. 



Fig. 24. 




horizontal serew passage, or nut, to receive the screw spindle, 
i, which is held by an aye at the end of the socket groove, 
and is actuated 1-) moans of a button on the outside. By 



190 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



turning the screw, i, in either direction, the centre leg may bo 
adjusted with great accuracy at any part of the socket. In 
adjusting the instrument to any measurement, the pencil socket, 
m, is loosened, and set pretty near the mark, and fixed; the 
exact length of radius is then obtained by adjusting the centre leg 
by means of the screw. A pair of beam compasses, or dividers, of 
somewhat different description, are represented in side elevation in 
fig. 25. In this instrument, which is entirely of metal, the centre 

Fig. 25. 




es=hst 



-Hyv, .--i-, 1 - r 7^" 



mTiT 



"11 



<gfe» 



leg is fixed to the bar, and the moveable leg is 
carried by a socket entirely embracing the bar, 
and sliding upon it. An additional socket is 
carried by the bar, and is connected to the first 
by a longitudinal screw spindle, whilst it may 
be fixed at any point on the bar by means of 
a pinching screw underneath. The bar is graduated, and in the 
larger socket an opening is made having a bevilled edge, upon 
which a vernier scale is cut, so that very minute measurements 
may be taken. In setting the instrument, the smaller socket is 
fixed at a convenient point on the bar and then the larger socket, 
which carries the moveable point, pencil, or pen, is set back or 
forward, as necessary, by the longitudinal screw connecting it to 
the smaller socket. 

Of the compasses class of drawing-instruments, there now re- 
main to be described the proportional dividers. This instru- 
ment is represented, in front and side elevation, in figs. 26 and 27. 
Its use is to increase or reduce measurements to a different scale 
to that of the original drawing, of which a copy is being made ; 
and a great deal of time may be saved by employing it, whilst 
there is much less risk of making mistakes with it, than when the 
draughtsman, in reducing a measurement, has first to take the 
distance, on the original drawing, in his common dividers, and, by 
applying it to the scale of that drawing, ascertain how much it is 
arithmetically ; and then to find the corresponding distance on the 
reduced scale, which he has again to take in his dividers, so as to 
apply it to the copy in hand. With the proportional dividers, on 
the other hand, the action of taking the measurement on the 
original drawing, at one end of the instrument, adjusts its other 
end to the measurement, as increased or reduced to the scale of 
the copy. The instrument consists of a couple of elongated slotted 
brass plates, connected by an adjustable joint, j, and provided 
with steel points at both extremities of each plate. It will be 
obvious that, if the joint, j, is adjusted exactly in the centre 
between the extreme points, on opening the dividers, the distances ■ 
between the points, at each end, will be equal ; but if the joint, j, 
is adjusted, as in the figure, so that the length of the legs on one 
side is only half that on the other, then the distance between the 
points at one end will be half that between the points at the other 
end. In the same manner, by shifting- the joint, j, still nearer 
one side of the instrument, a still less distance will be measured 



by one end, as compared with the other ; but the measurements 
will always bear the same propor- 
tion to each other as that which is, F'g- 26. Fig. 27. 
for the time being, between the 
portions of the instrument on each 
side of the joint, J. To enable 
the draughtsman to set the instru- 
ment to any desired proportion, 
the sides of the slot are graduated, 
and a projection on the joint has 
an index-line cut upon it, which 
is to be placed opposite the num- 
ber corresponding to the desired 
proportion, in adjusting the in- 
strument. When being adjusted, 
the points of the instrument 
should accurately coincide ; and 
to secure this, a pin is fixed in 
one of the plates or legs, and a 
notch is cut in the other to receive 
it. The instrument is made to 
answer various purposes, in addi- 
tion to that of reducing drawings. 
Thus, the joint may be so set, that 
when one end is applied to the 
radius of a circle, the other end 
will give the side of an inscribed 
polygon. One of the sides of the 
instrument is usually graduated 
for this purpose, and there are also 
divisions for finding the propor- 
tions between similar plane figures, 
and for finding the proportions 
between cubes or spheres. The 
proportional dividers require to 
be very accurately made, and 
great care must be taken of them ; 
for if the points become injured 
or bent, or if the joint gets loose, 
the instrument will be rendered 
useless. 

In copying drawings, where 
time is a matter of more consider- 
ation than the preservation of the 
original drawing, a great deal of 
time is frequently saved by laying 
the original upon the paper for 
the copy, and pricking the prin- 
cipal points through the former. 
A convenient instrument for this 
purpose is represented in partial 
section, in fig. 28, and consists of 
a needle point, held by a screw, e, 
in a brass socket, with an ivory 
handle. The socket is made to 
take off by unscrewing, and uncovers a small screw-driver, which 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



101 



Fig. 28 



will serve to turn the screw, e, or any of the smaller screws in the 
other instruments. 

In treating of drawing ellipses,* we have already described one 
of the many instruments constructed for that purpose. 
The well-known " trammel " is one of the simplest in 
construction, but it is very defective in practice. In 
figs. 29 and 30 we give an elevation and plan of a 
trammel of the newest and most improved form, in which 
the practical defects are very much lessened, but the 
contrivances by which this approximate perfection is 
attained are of such a nature as to require a more than 
ordinary excellence and accuracy of workmanship in the 
construction. The trammel consists of a metal bar, e, 
on which are fitted three sliding sockets, which can be 
adjusted at any points on the bar. Two of these sockets 
carry centre legs, p, o, and the third carries a pen, or 
pencil, s. In addition to these details, a guide-plate, 
Q, is required, having a couple of grooves cut in its 
upper face, at right angles to each other. This guide- 
plate has two short pin points, on the under side, to 
prevent it from slipping on the paper upon which it is 
placed In ordinary instruments the legs, o and p, ter- 
minate in simple points, which are respectively caused 
to traverse the grooves in the guide-plate, q, in describ- 
ing the ellipse. It is, however, found to be almost 
impossible to obtain a smooth action with this arrangement, as 
the pressure on the points, being oblique to their line of move- 
ment along the guide-grooves, the friction is apt to be irregular, 
and so cause a varying motion of the pen or pencil point, and produce 

Fig. 29. 




Fig. 30. 

nn uneven outline. In tho instrument represented in figs. 20 and 
30, the parts which traverse tho guide-grooves in the plate, q, con- 
sist of small steej wheels, o, p, carried in tho forked ends of tho 

* Sec page 17. 



steel spindles, o', p', which are entered loose into the socket legs, 
o, p. Thus, whilst the wheels considerably alleviate the friction 
arising in traversing the grooves, they always maintain their posi- 

Fig. 31. 




Fig. 32. 

tion with regard to the grooves, whatever be the position of the bar, 
K, and pen, s. In adjusting the instrument, it is simply necessary 
to set the pen and centre legs, so that the distance of the two 
latter from the former shall correspond respectively with the 
semi-transverse and semi-conjugate axes of the ellipse to be 
described. With the instrument represented in the engravings 
it will not be possible to describe any ellipse which does not lie 
wholly outside the guide-plate, q ; and where smaller ellipses are 
required, a smaller guide-plate must be used. 

Beyond comparison, the best instrument we have seen for 
drawing ellipses is that invented by Mr. Webb, and represented in 
elevation in fig. 31, and in plan in fig. 32. It consists of a 
lozenge-shaped table, a, of thin metal, supported upon four 
pointed legs, a'. Two parallel guides, b, are fixed across the top 
of the tabic, a, and a disc, c, is fitted between them, in such a 
manner as to be just capable of turning and sliding between tho 
guides, b. The disc has a slot at one side, extending from the 
centre to the circumference, and in this is fixed, at any point, by a 
screw, d, a spindle, E, passing down through tho tabic, a, below 
which it has fixed to it a slight frame, f, carrying a screw spindle, 
c This screw serves to adjust the pen, or pencil, u, back or for- 
ward, on tho frame, f. Tho spindle, E, works in a slot, i, in the 
table, a, which slot is at right angles to the disc guides, b. The 
instrument is caused to operate by turning the spindle, e, by 
means of the button, n, which action turns the carrier frame, f, 
and also tho disc, b. It then follows, thai if the spindle, e, wero 
fixed in tho centro of the disc, b, the poinl of the pen would 
describe a circle. If, however, the spindle, f„ is fixed eccentri- 
cnlly in the disc, the rotation o\' the latter, between its guides, it, 
will cause Hie spindle to traverse tho slot, i, in the table, a, in 
such B manner that the point of the pen will describe a perfect 



192 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



ellipse. In adjusting the instrument, two lines are drawn on the 
paper at right angles to each other, and the points of the legs, a', 
are placed upon these lines, when the slot, I, will be immediately 
above one of them, which will answer for the transverse axis of 
the ellipse, whilst the other one will be immediately below a line 
midway between the two guides, b, and will serve for the conju- 
gate axis. The disc, b, is then set with its slot at right angles to 
the slot, I, in the table, a, and the semi-conjugate axis being 
marked upon the paper beneath, the point of the pen, h, is 
adjusted to it by turning the screw, g. The disc, B, is then 
turned a quarter round, so that its slot may coincide with the 
slot, I, and the screw, d, being loosened, the spindle, e, is moved 
back or forward along the disc slot, until the point of the pen, h, 
coincides with the end of the transverse axis of the ellipse. 
When so adjusted, the nut, d, is screwed down to fix the spindle, 
e, to the disc, b, and the ellipse may then be described. The 
legs, a', of the table are formed with telescopic socket joints, 
inside which very delicate springs are placed, of just sufficient 
strength to lift the pen's point off the paper, when not in the act 
of describing an ellipse, whilst a slight pressure of the hand, 
holding the table, a, during the drawing action, will overcome the 
resistance of the springs, and allow the pen, or pencil, to touch the 
paper. The legs, a, may be formed with a screw socket joint in 
addition, so that they may be accurately adjusted as to length, in 
order to preserve the table, A, perfectly level. 

A very convenient instrument for describing ellipses of small 
eccentricity, or which differ very little from circles, is the ellipti- 
cal compasses, consisting of two round legs, jointed together like 
ordinary compasses, upon one of which a pencil-holder is fitted 
with a tubular socket, so as to move longitudinally and circularly 
upon the leg. The pencil-holder is jointed, so that the pencil 
point may be adjusted at any distance from the leg. In using 
the instrument, the point of the leg carrying the pencil-holder is 
placed in the centre of the ellipse, and the leg is inclined in 
the direction of the transverse axis, by stretching out the other 
leg along the prolongation of the axis. The legs are held 
steady by one hand, and the pencil is carried round with the 
other, being kept in contact with the paper, by causing it to 
move up and down the leg as well as to rotate. In order that 
the ellipse may be drawn accurately in any desired position, it 
is necessary that the leg carrying the pencil-holder should be 
held perpendicular to the conjugate axis. To secure this, one 
of the legs should have a point branching out on one, or on both 
sides of the point, which is placed on the transverse axis, and the 
additional point, or points, should be in such a position as, when 
touching the paper, to keep the legs of the compasses in the per- 
pendicular position alluded to. It is for want of this important 
addition that elliptical compasses have hitherto been found to be 
fallacious, and, in fact, useless. The instrument is not applicable 
to very oblong ellipses, because the inclination of the pencil 
becomes too great for the production of a clean line. 

It is often necessary, particularly in topographical drawings, to 
make an estimate of the measurement of a series of curved, undu- 
lating, or irregular lines, as the circumference of a field, or the 
outline of any other irregularly-shaped area ; for which purpose an 
" opisometer," or circumference measurer, is used. This instru- 



ment is represented in separate elevations, taken at right angles to 
each other, in figs. 33 and 34. It consists of a short screw 
spindle, fixed in a bracket 



Fig. 33. 



Fig. 34 



frame, and attached to an 
ivory handle. Working upon 
the screw spindle, like a nut, 
is a small disc, with a tapered 
and finely-milled edge. This 
disc is made to roll along tho 
line to be measured, and, in 
doing so, it necessarily tra- 
verses along the screw from 
end to end. When the end 
of the line is reached, the in- 
strument is traversed along a 
graduated rectilinear scale in 
the reverse direction to that 
in which it was passed over 
the line to be measured. This 
movement brings back the 
disc to the end of the screw 
from which it started; and 
when this point is reached, the 
distance traversed on the scale 
is obviously equal to the 
length of the original line. 
Care must be taken to keep 
the handle of the instrument 
in a vertical position, and to 
assist in this one of the 
bracket arms is formed with a 
pin, projecting down almost to 
the level of the bottom of the 
disc. It is also necessary that the disc should roll with a uni- 
form pressure. This instrument may be used for measuring 
curved surfaces as well as curved lines. 

Several very ingenious instruments have been invented for a pur- 
pose similar to that for which the opisometer is used, but presenting 
more serious difficulties. The usual method of discovering the area 
of a figure drawn on a plan, is to divide it into a number of triangles 
or trapeziums — to measure the base and altitude of each, and take 
the sum of their products. By a careful process of this kind, tho 
area may be discovered with great accuracy ; but as it is necessary 
to revise the Calculations several times, both for the purpose of 
obviating faults in the arithmetical part of the work, and in order, 
by taking the average of a few independent measurements, to in- 
crease the probable accuracy of the result, this method of calcu- 
lation, especially when the figure is irregular, entails a considerable 
amount of labour of an irksome kind. Attempts have been made 
to avoid this by cutting the figure from the sheet of paper, and 
weighing it in a delicate balance against weights consisting of 
parts of the same paper, of determinate sizes ; but this method — at 
first sight simple and practical — is rendered of little use by tho 
impossibility of obtaining paper of uniform thickness throughout 
the sheet, the variation of thickness — and hence of weight — being 
greater than the amount of error that could be allowed in the results, 




BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



193 



Several " planimeters," or instruments for mechanically mea- 
suring the area of plain surfaces, were exhibited in the Great 
Exhibition of 1851, and are noticed in Mr. Glaisher's admirable 
report on Class X., " Philosophical Instruments, and pro- 
cesses depending upon their nse." All, or nearly all of these, 
aimed at the solution of the problem by integrating the dif- 
ferential expression of a curve, traced on a plane 
surface, being conceived on the old, and now almost 
forgotten, view of the differential calculus, which 
regarded the differential of a magnitude as a measure 
of the velocity of its increase at any instant. Sup- 
pose a straight line to be carried, with a uniform 
motion, along the base line, or abscissa, of any curvi- 
linear area, remaining always parallel to itself, and 
perpendicular to the base line, and that, during this motion a 
moveable point in the line, so carried, is always kept ou the cir- 
cumference, or boundary line, of the area. Then it is clear, that 
the velocity of increase of the area will be proportional to. and 
therefore measured by, the length of the ordinate, or portion of the 
moveable line included between the base line and the describing 
point. Again, a disc, or wheel, can be supposed to revolve with 
an angular velocity always proportionate to the same ordinate ; 
in which case the total angle of revolution described by it will 
increase by similar increments with the curvilinear area, and will, 
consequently, always be proportionate to, and a measure of, that 
area. The area may therefore be read off, upon its circumference, 
by any method which keeps account of the number of revolutions 
made by this wheel, which may be called the integrating wheel, 
disc, or roller. If the circumferences of two circles be connected 
by teeth, or by simple contact, so as to work together, their 
angular velocities will be inversely as their radii ; so that, if the 
radius of one of them be constant, the angular velocity of that 
one will be directly as the radius of the other. Thus, any mecha- 
nical arrangement securing the condition that a roller, or disc, 
shall be carried round on its centre, by contact with a uniformly 
revolving circle of a radius always equal to the length of the 
variable ordinate, will at once be a solution of the problem. The 
condition allud-ed to may be obtained by employing a couple of 
discs at right angles to each other, or by using a cone and a disc, 
with their axes parallel to each other. The former construction 
is adopted in one or two instruments, invented by continental 
mathematicians, the latter by Mr. Sang of Kirkaldy. 

Mr. Sang's instrument, which is represented in perspective 
in fig. 35, indicates the area of any figure, however irregular, 
on merely carrying the point' of a tracer round its' boundary ; 
and, besides the advantage of not injuring the drawing, it pos- 
sesses that of speed and accuracy. A frame, a, carries an axle, 
which has on it two rollers, b, of equal size, and a cone, c. It 
is heavy, so that it maintains its parallelism on being pushed 
along the paper. The sides of tin; frame are parallel to the edge 
of the cone, and are fitted to receive the circumference of four 
friction rollers, k, which move along a, and carry a light Frame, r. 
terminating on the tracing-point, i\ to which the handle, u. is 
attached by a universal joint. The frame, r,al60 carries a wheel, i, 
which, by means of a weight, is pressed on the surface of the 
cone, and receives motion from it as (lie tracer is carried along the 



paper. The index-wheel, i, only touches the cone by a narrow 
edge, the rest of its circumference being of smaller diameter, and 
containing a silver ring divided into 200 parts, which are again 
subdivided by a vernier into 2,000 parts. The value of each of 

Fig. 35. 




these divisions is the T J ff th part of a square inch ; so that one turn 
of the wheel represents 20 inches. Another index wheel, t, 
moved by i, is divided into five parts, each of which represents 
20 inches, so that a complete revolution of T values 100 inches. 
The eye-glass, e, assists in reading the divisions and vernier. 

It is apparent, from the construction of this instrument, that if 
the tracer be moved forward, it will cause the index to revolve, 
not simply in proportion to that motion, but in proportion to the 
motion of the tracer, multiplied by the distance of the edge of the 
index-wheel, from the apex of the cone ; and that the revolving 
motion of the index will be positive or negative, according as the 
tracer is carried backwards or forwards. Hence, if the tracer 
be carried completely round the outline of any figure — on arriv- 
ing at the end of its journey, the index-wheel will show the 
algebraic sum of the breadth of the figure at every point, multi- 
plied by the increment of the distance of the points from the 
apex of the cone ; that is to say, the area of the figure. 

This instrument possesses great simplicity of construction. 
Both factors of the continuous multiplication are directly trans- 
mitted from the motion of the tracing point in the simplest 
manner. The influence of the elasticity of the parts of the 
machine on the accuracy of its indications, may be discovered 
by moving the tracer a second time over the boundary of the 
figure, after having turned the whole instrument round 180°. 
The effects of the imperfections in the mechanism will now have 
changed signs, and one of the results will probably be found to 
be a little too large, and the other a little too small. The average 
between the two is the exact area of the figure, and is more to 
be depended on than the results of measurements made by scale 
and calculation in the usual way. A careful operator, in using 
the planimeter, will always take the average of two tracings in 
this manner; but when he experiences the rapidity with which 
this may be done, he will find the trouble as nothing in com- 
parison with the harassing labour of calculating by scale and 
multiplication. 

Mr. 'Miller, of Woolwich, has devised a very useful modifica- 
tion of the common jointed rule. This instrument is termed a 
"radiator." and our engraving, lig. :'>ti. represents a portion of 
it in plan, whilst tig. :!7 is an end elevation. The inner edges of 
the legs are used us rulers, and the joint has a transparent 

'J a 



194 



THE PRACTICAL DRAUGHTSMAN'S 



centre, a, which is placed directly over the point to be drawn to. 
A graduated arc, b, is supplied, and the brass legs are furnished 



Fig. 36 



Fig. 37. 




< 



with sockets, which admit of any length of ruler being used. 
The radiator is applicable to the following purposes : — 

For drawing lines in perspective, or geometrical drawing, to a 
point or centre ; for setting off angles as a protractor ; for a 
right-angled triangle, or any other angles ; and for setting out 
polygons of different numbers of sides. In using it, the centre 
of the glass is placed over the centre to be drawn to, and a line 
is drawn along the inner edge of the ruler from the point re- 
quired. When many lines are to be drawn to one centre, the 
hand must be placed upon one leg, to allow the other to be 
moved to the several points. 

Two forms of protractors, or instruments for setting off or 
measuring angles have already been described ;* a third, and 
much approved form, consists of a circular bar divided to 360°, 
and having two diametrical arms, one of which carries a vernier 
adapted to the divided circle. In laying off angles, or in the 
construction of any general delineations by this instrument, the 
bearings must first be marked on the original sheet, and thence 
transferred to the required position by parallel rulers, or some 
similar adjunct. Thus, two separate instruments are necessary, 
and the accuracy of the indications suffers correspondingly. 
These inconveniences are entirely done away with in Mr. Simp- 
son's elegant duplex straight-edge protractor, which is repre- 
sented in plan in fig. 38. A graduated quadrant, forming an 
index for angles, is made in one piece with a parallel bar, a, 
which is connected at each extremity by means of traverse bars, 
b, with a similar bar, a, the space between the two being of such 
a width as to admit the straight edge, c, at any part of which 
it can be fixed by the pinching screw, e. A central transverse 
piece, d, which is screwed to the two bars, a, carries a pivot, or 
joint stud, for the eye of a radial straight-edge, f, having it? 
edges bevelled off for ruling close to the paper. A screw, g, 
and clamping plate are provided to fix the radial straight bar, 
f, at any angle. Immediately above the centre of the radius bar, 
f, and fixed to it at both ends, is a smooth rod, h, upon which 
slides the socket, i. This socket carries the two straight-edges, 
j, lying in one straight line, and united together by a bridge- 
piece embracing the socket, i, and adjusted unon it by means 

* See page 8 and plate I. 



of screws, so as to be capable of being kept at all times accu- 
rately at right angles with the radius bar, f. At a short distance 
from the centre of motion of the radius bar, f, is a segmental 
opening, graduated to 30°, on each side of the centre, or zero ' 
point, forming two verniers, for instruments differently divided, 
and for the minute subdivision of the graduations of the quad- 
rant on the piece, a. By this apparatus any angles may be 
measured and laid off by the quadrant, and transferred to any 
point on the paper without the aid of any additional instrument, 
as the whole instrument may be move"d to any desired point on 
the straight-edge, c, without any shift of position with reference 
to the meridian line or starting point. "With additional scales 
on the right angle straight-edges, j, the instrument may be em- 
ployed, as an offset scale, for plotting surveys and laying down 
sections. 

One of the most economically useful instruments of the 
draughtsman is the Pentagraph ; but it is one which requires 
such extreme accuracy and truthfulness in its construction, that 
its consequent cost puts it out of the reach of the majority of 
those who need it. By means of it, drawings may be copied on 
an enlarged or reduced scale, by the mere action of carrying 
a tracing point over the lines of the original drawing. The 
motion of the tracing point is communicated to the delineating; 




pencil by the angular movements of a series of levers oscillating 
upon a fixed centre. If one arm of a lever is twice as long as the 
other, the arc described by its extremity will be twice as great, 
whatever be the extent of the movement. In this case, however 
the radii of the arcs would be uniform, and an arrangement is 



BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN. 



195 



required, providing for the increase or decrease in length of the 

two radii, but in such a manner that they shall continually 

be in the same proportion 

to each other. This is 

effected by making the 

main lever with joints 

midway between the ex- 



Fig. 40. 




tremities and the 
centre of motion. 
It is necessary, 
however, that the outer joints of 
the lever should be maintained 
constantly parallel to each other, 

and it is likewise desirable that the instrument should be capa- 
ble of adjustment for different proportions, otherwise its scope 
of usefulness would be sadly narrowed. These several condi- 
tions are fulfilled in the instrument represented in our engraving, 
fig. 40, which is a pentagraph of the most modern and approved 
design and construction. The main lever, a, turns upon a centre 
carried by the weight, b, which has fine points upon its under 
side to prevent its slipping upon the paper. The lever, a, 
passes through a socket at the centre, and may be fixed by a 
pinching screw at any point of its length; it is graduated at the 
side, and the socket is formed with a vernier index for the esti- 
mation of minute measurements. To the extremities of the 
lever, a, are jointed the discs, c, which are formed with sockets 
on their under sides to receive the bars, d, e. These bars are 
graduated in a similar manner to the main lever, and vernier 
indices are formed in the plates, c, to correspond. The paral- 
lelism of these bars is maintained by the rods, p ; the tracing 
point is at g, and the delineating pencil at h, or vice versa, as 
the case may be. A string, i, is passed from the tracing point 
through guide eyes at the joints, c, c, to a small bell-crank lever, 
at h, by means of which the pencil is raised when it is not wished 
to mark ; this being effected by drawing the string, i, at the 
tracing point. As represented in the engraving, the instrument 
is adjusted to copy a drawing upon an enlarged scale. To 
obtain the correct action of the instrument it is necessary that 
the tracer, g, pencil, h, and centre of motion, b, be in a straight 
line. The proportion of reduction or enlargement being deter- 
mined on, the main lever, a, is so adjusted in its socket, b, that 
the portions of the lever on each side of the centre may have 
this proportion to each other; this being indicated by the 
graduated scale on the side of the lever. The bars, i>, i:, must 
then be correspondingly adjusted in their carrying sockets, the 



distance between the tracer, or pencil, and joint being always 
equal to the distance between the joint and turning centre on 
the respective side of the main lever, a. The instru- 
ment, when adjusted, is balanced on its centre by 
means of the sliding weight, j, upon the lever, a. 
In some pentagraphs the rods, r, are dispensed 
with, and the parallelism of the bars, d, e, main- 
tained by a belt, k, indicated in 
dotted lines, passed round the 
peripheries of the discs, c, grooved 
for the purpose. 
This belt is usu- 
ally of thin flat 
steel wire, similar 
to that used for 
watch springs — a 
belt of ordinary 
material causing 
inaccuracies owing to its elasticity. The arrange- 
ment in which the rods are used is, however, 
superior, as the belt is apt to slip, or, if it is too tight, it occa- 
sions an injurious strain on the joints. 

Another, form of pentagraph has been suggested by Mr. R. 
Foster, jun., of Dublin, which seems susceptible of being rendered 
a very efficient instrument. It is delineated in fig. 41. The 
small and shallow circular box, a, contains the actuating mecha- 
nism, and is arranged to turn at pleasure upon the fixed centre 
stud, b ; and from each side of the box, a rod, c, d, projects, the 
points of the rods being brought into a horizontal line with the 
stud centre, b. The box is in horizontal section, to exhibit the 

Fig. 41. 



!- . : /. : I , i . .^ i- ,-■-■ ■■ ■ -M 1 :., . .- " , ' ■ ■■ , ", I. 'i, 




internal gearing. The end of each rod has rack-teeth upon it, 
the teeth on the rod, c, gearing with a spur-wheel, e, fast on a 
stud in the centre of the box ; whilst the other rod, d, similarly 
gears, with a pinion, f, on the same centre. Thes^ two wheels 
are, of course, changeable, their relative radii being always 
determinable by the proportion to be observed between the 
original and the copy, of any drawing to be reduced or enlarged 
by the instrument. The same relation is also to be kept up 
between the lengths of the two rods, in order that both the 
angular and longitudinal traverse actions may coincide. It is 
then obvious that whatever figure is traced out by the point 
on one rod, will be delineated by (ho pencil on the other, in 
the proportion determined by the wheels and the leverage of 
the rods. The rods may be either worked on opposite sides, 
or both on the same side. 



19G 



THE DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF DESIGN. 



In this practically descriptive account of the draughtsman's tools, we have endeavoured to put the student in 
possession of the best examples of delineative mechanism which the collective experience of the time has produced. 
The subject is a wide one, and would bear indefinite extension in the way of analysing the varieties of design and 
construction which individual experience or fancy has suggested. But such a mode of treatment would necessarily 
be digressive ; and we have, therefore, steadily adhered to a critical examination of what our own experience warrants 
us in presenting to the practical draughtsman, as the best and most trustworthy aids in the prosecution of his studies 
in Industrial Design. 

With this our task is accomplished. The pages now before the student are given to hini in the hope that they 
may be found to form — 

"A volume of detail, where all is orderly set down." 

and that they really redeem the promises held out in our prefatory remarks. The English language now, for the first 
time, possesses a text-book of design in connection with those industrial pursuits which have rendered the sons of the 
British islands so pre-eminently famous. If it fulfils but a small portion of the purposes for which we have designed 
it, we shall rest satisfied in having accomplished something towards the spread of that particular education in which 
the continental industrialist has hitherto left us so far behind. 

" Men are universally divided, as regards their artistical qualifications," says the eloquent author of " Modern 
Painters" " into three great classes — a right, a left, and a centre. On the right side are the men of facts ; on the 
left, the men of design ; in the centre, the men of both." Let it be our mission to weaken this disunion of the two 
first, by adding to the weight and number of the centre or composite class. The right and the left may each hold to, 
and discuss their respective facts and designs, but nothing really good can arise from all this, until the practised ex- 
perimentalist shall impose that check upon the theoretical designer, which the latter will again return, in opposing 
the false deductions arising from misapprehended facts. " Art," says Whewell, " is the parent, not the progeny of 
science ; the realization of principles in practice forms part of the prelude, as well as the sequel, of theoretical 
discovery." But we must* uard against the empiricisms of practice by judicious theoretical comparisons. Our men 
of practice and our men of science have lived too much apart. " The dexterous hand and the thoughtful mind," the 
labourer who toils with sweated brow, and he who exerts the conceptions of the imaginative brain, find their strength 
in union alone. 

No book, however profoundly it maybe designed, or however clearly it maybe written, can make a draughtsman. 
To certain inherent qualifications, the ambitious student must add attentive assiduity and patient toil. The first 
elements will be useful ; the second are absolutely essential. Let each of our readers recall the admirable words of 
Gibbon : — " Every man who rises above the common level has received two educations — the first from his teachers ; 
the second, more personal and important, from himself." These are words which Bacon would have said must be 
"chewed and digested." In his "Advice on the Study and Practice of the Law," Mr. Wright has, most happily and 
effectively, discussed a similar topic. He says, "The student may rest assured that, without industry, and that con- 
fidence which an ardent love of fame, and an enthusiastic desire for improvement, never fail to inspire, he will not 
become eminent ; and he must remember that society forms a very different opinion of the man of sound judgment 
and perseverance, who seldom fails in his attempts, and the fanciful and vain, who, whilst they imagine themselves 
more capable to learn than others, pass their lives in indolent or trifling pursuits, without acquiring that knowledge 
of their profession which ensures accuracy and success in practice." These are the well-considered ideas of men who 
have combined both thought and action. Their pithy eloquence embodies whole chapters of matter worthy of sinking 
deeply into the student's memory, where they must arouse him from any dreamy and deceptive contemplations of 
comparative excellence ; for the superficial thinker is but too apt to be thus led away, forgetting that such compari- 
sons continually lessen the advantages on his side, as the acquisitions which he perhaps superciliously boasts are 
mouldering away. 

With these views, and to further such ends, we have written this book ; and with such views do we now commit 
the venture to the world of industrial readers. 




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fig. A 



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Plate 7 



Fig-. E 



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Plate 8. 



l cr. O . 
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c' a: e' F 






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ed l>\ .1 C Ruttre, 



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Plate 9 




Ai 'iniMi'Uiul 8c Amoui nux 






[: 



E APPLICATION OF ( 



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COPPER. 



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Plate 13 







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Plate 14 



Fie?, 4 



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Vrraenjyaud & Amouroux 



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I'i.ii Ural Draughtsman 




ivuoVavrd by .! G Buttle. 



Plate 15 



Jig. 



Fig 7 




Vrmenoviui ■■ irons 



li tii a] Draughtsman. 








Egi-: 



^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 







M»4 — i — I — t — H 



Kn "'raved Lv J.C 



Plate 16 




\ in 1 1> [ i • ;.i i u 1 8 \iiioun>u\ 



'radical Diviiiulilsmai 




Engl .ivit.I bv J.C linlh 



Hale [7 




Aruieutfand Ov Ainouvoux 



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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^ 



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Plate 18 



Fiq\ 3 





\ni|.'lM.iu<l fe Amoi: 



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Eu«Taved by .J .CBuitre 



Pktel9 




Annrmr.uul 5C Ainournux 

5 



. i i man 




O decimetres . 



ayed by J. C. Entire. 



Plate 20 






1 - 
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VacticaJ Draughtsman 




b 1 C Buttre. 



Plate 23 




vi 1 1 1 1 1 1- '.ii 1 1 1 \ Aii - 



.it-Ural Draughtsman 




raved by J ( ' Bxrttre 



Tier. 2 



Plate 24 




\'.w/, • 



gaud X Aiih> 



raeuca 



•niuililsinuii 



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F W : m 



Fig- C 



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Hate 25 



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Practical Draughtsman 



l ; ,u'A 



hi''- \j 



Ka- A 





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Araengatui & Aiuouronx. 



I 'r,ichr;il I Mm nu lilsm ,111 






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Plate 29 



I •" i o ■.?■ 




i 



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Fig; 6 







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hattre. 



Plate 31 



Fig 10 



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I'lalc 32 



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ate 35 










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Mate 34 



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Plate 35 




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Plate 38 




\ 1 1 1 1 . ■ ( i ■ • . 1 1 1 < i & \ 



II 



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Plate 39 




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Male 41 




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Plate 42 



C 



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Hate 45 




Settle '■■,'"'/;■,/„/?, 



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Fivui leal Draughtsman . 



Example Plate A. 



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Example Plate D 



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Example Plate E 



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Y/lJ V 3D - PLAN 




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